Mills Higher And Lower Pleasures Philosophy Essay

grinders Higher And Lower Pleasures Philosophy Essay Mill claims that recreation, and immunity from wound, argon the only things desirable as ends. (Mill, p. 187) A few paragraphs later, however, he says that it is fracture to be a human universe dis genial than a atomic number 29 satisfied give away to be Socrates dissatisfied than a razz satisfied. (p. 187) Is Mill neutralizeing himself, or ar these two claims consistent?Mill is earlier enhancing instead of contradicting his point of view of utileism by the two claims verbalize to a high place in the topic. T hither are two types of pleasures that he introduces here. Pleasure, and freedom from pain imply the set down pleasures which involved purely body sensations (Mill, p.187). On the early(a) hand, being a human or Socrates dissatisfied indicates high(prenominal) pleasures associated with deterrent example sentiments (Mill, p.187). eyepatch an animal could be in full happy with a living of lower pleasures, a human being could not fully be happy un slight attention was paid to these high pleasures. In this paper, I first of all intend to provide an explanation of Mills promissory note of higher and lower pleasures regarding these claims. Secondly, I shall introduce the method of calculating general utility (Mill refers as the only thing desirable as ends) considering twain quantities and qualities involving these claims (Mill, p.187). Thirdly, I go forth interpret how these two claims stated in the top consistent. Last however not least, I shall reply whatever objections rose from the discussion.What does Mills distinction between higher and lower pleasures suggest? When Mill introduces the notion of higher pleasures he is clearly discussing, among other(a) things, intellectual pursuits and activities as well as pleasures of aesthetics and sympathy. An adequately satisfying human life essential thusly contain pleasures of the intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and o f the moral sentiments, which have a much higher economic respect as pleasures than those of mere sensation (Mill, p186). Mill delineates how to differentiate between higher and lower eccentric pleasures A pleasure is of higher quality if raft would consume it over a different pleasure plain if it is go with by discomfort, and if they would not trade it for a corkinger amount of the other pleasure (Mill, p.187). Moreover, Mill contends, it is an unquestionable fact that, given equal approach shot to all kinds of pleasures, people will privilege those that appeal to their higher faculties. A person will not choose to become an animal an ameliorate person will not choose to become ignorant, and so on. fifty-fifty though a person who uses higher faculties often suffers much in life, he would never choose a lower existence, preferring instead to have got his dignity. Arguing that pleasures of the intellect are of a higher nature whereas sensual pleasures or the animal appet ites are of a lower nature, Mill claims that it is better to be a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (Mill, p.187). Mill also attributes the nobility of higher pleasures as accounting for their higher value and believes that competent judges have a sense of dignity which has them prefer intellectual pleasures over sensual integritys (Mill, p.187).How do we judge and calculate the overall utility of an action? The great Happiness Principle holds that actions are cover in proportion as they tend to campaign happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure. (Mill, p.187) Pleasure and the absence of pain are, by this account, the only things desirable as ends in themselves, the only things inseparablely good. Thus, each other circumstance, event, or bugger off is desirable only insofar as it is a source for such pleasure actions are good when they temper to a higher level of general happiness, and bad when they decrease that level. While Mill also argues that pleasure can differ in quality, and that pleasures that are rooted in ones higher faculties should be weighted more severely than baser pleasures. Mill placed great importance in the type of pleasure one experiences. Once people are made aware of their higher faculties, they will never be happy to leave them uncultivated. When making a moral judgment on an action, utilitarianism thus takes into account the quality of the pleasures resulting from it. In addition, according to utilitarianism, it is not moral for people just simply to act what makes them personally happy. Rather, morality is dictated by the greatest happiness commandment moral action is that which increases the total amount of utility in the world. In other words, quantity also matters. Every human being tries to promote his or her own happiness, and avoid unhappiness. This is natural, not ethical . Promoting happiness becomes an ethical guess when it is applied to all human beings, not just ourselves. Mills utilitarian calculus thus figures out how many people are bear on by an action, how they are impact, and therefore whether the action is right or wrong. Thus, the Greatest Happiness Principle tells us that an action is right in so far as it promotes happiness in all people affected by that action, and wrong in so far as it brings unhappiness to the people affected by that action.In this particular case regarding the claims stated in the topic, it basically proposed the following experiment one is a thought about to be allocated a life. He is offered either the extract of a great philosopher or that of a pig. The philosopher has a long, prolific career involving great success and enjoyment but the pig can only experience the most primitive sensual experiences manageable. Should one choose the apparently unsated yet intellectually active life of a philosopher or the deluxe life of an ancient pig (Mill, p.187)?In accordance with Mills utilitarianism, the choice to opt for would be that of the philosopher. Although the pigs life consists of far greater quantities of sensual pleasure, no amount of this lower pleasure, however prodigious, could compensate for ones existence devoid of inherent higher faculties and the ability to experience higher pleasures. on that pointfore, the total happiness one derives during their lifetime is not directly proportional to pleasure. When one considers the maximum possible happiness they can derive from their existence, elements other than pleasure quantity must be considered. Also, being a human being rather than a pig and being a philosopher rather than a fool brings more utility to the company, more people can benefit from these choices. Thus, quantities matter here as well. These choices are promoting more happiness, thus should be adopted.Some objections may rise from the above discussions. Some people m ay say that some higher pleasures are accompanied by discomfort, why people would choose it over the lower pleasures, would it bring less happiness? This objection here confuses the happiness with contentment. People who employ higher faculties are often less content, because they have a deeper sense of the limitations of the world. However, their pleasure is of a higher causa than that of an animal or a base human. That is why Mill writes, It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied (Mill. P.187). Thus the people best qualified to judge a pleasures quality are people who have experienced both the higher and the lower. There are different qualities of pleasure, and only people with a broad verify of experiences can dictate which pleasures are of a higher quality. Furthermore, Mill observes that even if the possession of a noble character brought less happiness to the individual, society would still ben efit. Thus, because the greatest happiness principle considers the total amount of happiness, a noble character, even if it is less desirable for the individual, is still desirable by a utilitarian standard.From all the reasons stated above, Mill does not contradict himself with the two statements made in the topic. While an animal could be fully happy with a life of lower pleasures, a human being could not fully be happy unless attention was paid to these higher pleasures. Purely sensation pleasures are good however, higher sentiment pleasures are more profound as they promote more happiness both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Business and Economic Environment in Lagos | Analysis

c qualified and Economic Environment in Lagos Analysis1.0INTRODUCTIONBusiness is seen to operate in spite of appearance an environment. This environment could either present a holy terror or an opportunity to the organizations that operate in it. This essay sticks to describe the melody environment in the metropolis where the researcher lives. The first section exit give an e trulywhereview of what subscriber line environment is all about. Further more than, Lagos offer leave be apply as a case study to examine the melody environment where the researcher lives. Then, different forces or conditions that encourage or capture business activities in Lagos kingdom exit be discussed2.0AN OVERVIEW OF BUSINESS surroundAccording to Nyandat (2013) Business environment nookie be defined as forces or surroundings that affect business operations. These forces may include customers, competitors, suppliers, distributors, attention trends, substitutes, regulations, giving medicati on activities, and preservation, social, political and cultural factors.Ogunro (2014) explained business environment as the combine of all environmental conditions and influences that atomic number 18 capable of affecting or influencing business activities. Furthermore, Obiwuru et al (2011) in any case defined environment of business as the collection of the pattern of all the external and internal conditions and influences that affects the existence, ripening and development of the business.For the part of this essay, Lagos state in Nigeria provide be utilize as a case study to analyze the business environment in the city where the researcher resides.Lagos state is the former capital of Africas largest landed estate, Nigeria it is the most dwell city in sub-Saharan region with more than 15 million people. Lagos is called center of excellence because of its reputation of ho victimisation the very trump out of Nigerias expert workforce. It is similarly home to the grou nds top industries and businesses with over 65% of imported goods passing through its ports and 80% of manufacturing be handled within or around its vicinity. With such massive sparing facts, Lagos is the life-wire of the Nigerian economy. This is outmatch explained by the fact that no macro- sparing activity privy ever pursue with Lagos being alienated.There ar forces or conditions that encourage or curb business activity in Lagos and these include2.1Human CapitalThe estate of Lagos is a very good advantage for business entrepreneurs because both skilled and unskilled workforce is available and very cheap. Lagos state has a universe of more than 15 million people of which 75% of them are youths and fervent to work in mold to earn a living. The city has the best of skilled workforce f read-only storage diverse regions including immaterial experts. This has military serviceed the business activity because you can get any expert you want at a very impartable price.2. 2 Inadequate actor Supply Inadequate reason supply is one of the major challenges that affect the business activity in Lagos. Every company has a standby exponent generator which is being used when there is power failure .Firms expenditure on diesel engine and petrol (as the case may be) is unbearable and this is affecting the productivity. This development is impacting negatively on the business investment collectable to step-upd expenditure on diesel and petrol by enterprises. This as well as comes with the consequences of declining productivity and competitiveness. Many companies suck been closed down imputable to inadequate power supply part some companies where forced to relocate to the nearby ground.Nigeria has lost very capacious amount of money due to inadequate power. In 1990, the World brim estimated the economic loss to the country from power in energy, at about N1 trillion (Adenikinju, 2005, p.3).Using telecom industry in Nigeria as an example which is an Ol igopolistic merchandise where we waste very few telecom industries their major challenge is power which they use to power all the base send across the country. around of them spend an outrageous amount of money to power these base stations because they can non afford to behave network failure due to power outage. telecommunication Operators Spend N10 Billion Annually to Power BTS (Nurudeen, 2014, p.1)2.3Security Situationdanger is an innovative(prenominal) major concern that affects businesses in Lagos, there is very proud rate of insecurity in the city and this made some distant investors to decline from investing in the country. The security agencies are trying to realise a secure and peaceful society but the giving medication understood needs to do more in separate to give the foreign investors courage to come in and invest. Using Oil and Gas field as an example, where we have Oligopolistic market structure and the price is being dominationled and correct by the giving medication, there is a lot of oil theft and air vandalism in the downstream orbit which affects the economy.The latest estimates by the pay Minister, Dr Mrs. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala put the oil theft at about 400,000 barrels per twenty-four hours the environment of the affected communities besides suffers serious degradation as a consequence of this line of work. (Ibru, 2014, p.2)2.4 Poor InfrastructuresLack of good infrastructure in the city is another major challenge many companies have their industries turn up at the industrial layout which is quite far from the metropolis. Commuters find it very arduous to access some remote places to buy products due to bad roads. (Gilbert, 2009) approach shot to raw materials for the company use is a major challenge also statistical distribution of goods and go to the metropolis is also a big problem due to bad roads. There is a lot of traffic congestion in the metropolis and valuable hours are being lost due to traffic which is caused by bad roads. There is no good health care field for the poor masses, many people could not have access to medical care because of widespread poverty in the country and this is causing very big negative impact to the country due to naughty mortality rate.3.0 ConclusionThe economic environment in Lagos state has been facing a lot of challenges but despite all that, they were able to create jobs, wealth for individuals, as well as revenue for the governing through role and gross.4.0 ReferencesAdenikinju, F. (2005) Analysis of the constitute of infrastructure failures in a developing economy the case of the electricity sector in Nigeria. intensiveness 148 of AERC research paper, African Economic search Consortium.Gilbert, C. (2009). Nigerias Bad Roads are Getting Worse. lendable http//www.voanews.com/content/nigerias-bad-roads-are-getting-worse-74805987/415952.html. Accessed 4th June 2014Ibru, G. (2013) Press conference on the economy by the Lagos chamber of commerce and industry. 2nd Quarter Online Available from Accessed 27th May 2014.Neyandat, C. (2013) how do you analyze the business environment? Gakus, twenty-first Oct. Available from http//www.gaksu.com/allpdf/140_notes.pdf Accessed 4th June 2014Nurudeen, A. (2014) Interview with the C.E.O of Airtel Nigeria, Daily Trust, Online 10th February.p.1. Available from http//allafrica.com/stories/201402100424.html?viewall=1 Accessed 28th May 2014Obiwuru T. Oluwalaiye, B. Okwu, T. (2011) External and Internal Environments of Businesses in Nigeria An Appraisal in International Bulletin of Business Administration (12)OGUNRO, O. (2014).International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. 4th ed. Rufus Giwa Polythecnic, Owo, Ondo state, Nigeria HR Mars. Question 21.0 INRODUCTIONMacroeconomics can be defined as study of economics that is more concerned with organisation structures, behavior and decision making which affects the country as a whole. It deals more with the countrys economy which includes gross interior(prenominal) product (gross house servant product), unemployment rate, price indices, exchange rate, Inflation. When a country is experiencing macroeconomic stability, it way that the countrys economy is very stable the Gross domestic Product (GDP) is very good, unemployment is reduced to the minimal rate and low splashiness. The aim of this essay is to examine the effectiveness of various approaches that may be used to reduce macroeconomic asymmetry spot exploring different policies which a countrys organisation could use to progress to macroeconomic goals2.0 AN OVERVIEW OF MACROECONOMICSMacroeconomics is concerned with government economic performance, it focuses on the economic trend of a nation. Macroeconomics deals with factors that that affect the countrys economy. Macroeconomic instability is major concern to any government and all possible measure must be taken to gibe that economic stability is maintained. Any country that suffer s macroeconomic instability get out possibly have a high rate of inflation, unemployment, low GDP or total recession. Different kinds of measure are taking by different countries to ensure that they maintained a stable economy. Below are some highlighted measures/policies which can be used to ensure that macroeconomic instability is reduced.2.1 PrivatizationPrivatization can be defined as a process by which some in businesslike and ineffective sector is being transferred to be managed by more efficient buck private sector for the benefit of economic growth. This will allow the government to perform its primary functions, that is administration of law and order thereby leaving the actual running of business enterprise to private sectors.Nwoye (2012) defined privatization as the transfer of ownership and control of enterprise from state to the private sector.The main reason why government privatize the humans sector is because of economic stability and this could be explained belowT o enhance energy in the cosmos sector there are so many inefficiency in public sector due to nonchalant attitude of the workers. most(prenominal) of the public servants believe that government are for the people, so they can do whatever they want without being fired and this affect the governments economy, there are so many ghost workers being paid by the government which affects the expenditure. simply when handed over to private sector, they become more efficient and generate more revenue for the government because the private sector cannot afford to lose money like the government, they will cut down the cost overhead to the barest minimum to be able to generate revenue which will help in the economic growth of the country.To decontrol the economic frame by reducing unnecessary administrative controls of the government deregulating the economic system helps the government to focus more on the administration of the nation by implementing law and order and good policies that w ill help in the economic growth. The government handing over the business management to the private sector will reduce their cost overhead and also increase efficiency in the administration of the nation.To decrease the volume of sleeveless instruments in the public sector as mentioned earlier, there are a lot of unproductive people and instrument in the public sector, nepotism and godfathers has contributed to inefficiency in the public sector where round peg is been put in a square hole. But when these sectors are being privatized, all these unproductive people and instrument will be removed and replaced with more productive instrument which will increase the employment and delivering of the goods and services thereby generating sufficient revenue for the government.To fortify the procedure of the private sector in the economy which will warranty employment and higher capacity utilization Fortification of the role of the private sector in the economy is very important as this wi ll help in decreasing the level of unemployment in the country and which helps in economic stability.Reduction of political check in the public sector politicial halt in the public sector increases the rate of corruption which affects the economy, but without the interference of the politicians when privatized, the sectors will be more productive with less corrupt practices.2.2 general Private Partnership (PPP)Omoh (2012) confirmed that government across the globe have come to terms with the fact that public sector cannot provide the undeniable infrastructure and have come to the conclusion that private sector intricacy in the provision of infrastructure in inevitable. Public private coalition is where the government and private sector goes into partnership to bring economic growth through building and construction of infrastructures, managing them for a shot term or long term and finally hand them over to the government afterwards a stipulated period as agreed. This partners hip helps to increase the gross domestic product and it can be done is so many ways it could take the form of Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT), Build-Operate-Own (BOO), Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT), Design-Build-Operate-Transfer (DBOT), Design-Build-Finance and Operate (DBFO). Other less customary ones are Build-Rent/Lease-Transfer (BRT or BLT) Build-Transfer and Operate (BTO). Omoh (2012)The Scope for the public private partnership ranges from Power generation plant and transmission, roads and bridges, ports, airports, railways, inland container depots and logistics hubs, gas and petroleum, water supply, housing, educational facilities (e.g. Schools, Universities) and healthcare facilities. This helps the government to spend less money on these areas while the partners will finance and manage these sectors for some time to recover their invested money.2.3 monetary PolicyHeakal (2013) defines fiscal policy as the means by which a government adjust its spending activity and tax r ates in order to monitor and influence a nations economy.Heakal (2003) also confirms that fiscal policy is based on the renowned British economist, magic trick Mynard Keynes, who is known as Keynesian economics his theory shows that government can influence macroeconomic stability / productivity level by change magnitude or decreasing tax levels and public spending. This influence will in turn curb inflation, increase employment and maintain a level-headed value of money.Gbosi (2008) says that fiscal policy entails the governments management of the economy through the controlling of its income and spending power in order to achieve certain desired macroeconomics objectives in which economic growth and stability is among them.Jhingan (2006) also acknowledges the power of fiscal policy as an instrument of macroeconomic stabilization.Iyeli Ijomah (2013) also established that if fiscal policy is used with circumspection and synchronized with other measures, it will possibly smoothen out business cycle which leads to economic growth and stability.Based on the above explanations, it could be said that pecuniary policy is a way or method the government is using to control economic goals in order to maintain stability in the nations economy. Fiscal policy can come as increase in gross or government expenditure in order to influence aggregate demand (AD) and level of economic activity. AD can be defined as the total level of plotted expenditure in an economy (AD= C+ I + G + X M) where C= Consumer spending, I= Investment, G=Government Spending, X= export, M= Imports)The government might implement the fiscal policy in order to dumbfound economic growth in a period of a recession, the government can also use fiscal policy to keep inflation low. Mainly, fiscal policy aims to stabilize economic growth in order to avoid boom and bust economic cycle.2.4 taxationAnyanwu (1997) defined taxation as the compulsory transfer or payment from private individuals, institution s or groups to the government.Nzotta (2007) stated the four key issues that must be understood for taxation to play its function in the society first, a tax is a compulsory contribution made by citizens to the government and this contributions is for general common use. Secondly, a tax imposes a general obligation on the taxpayer. Thirdly, there is a presumption that the contribution to the public revenue made by taxpayer may not be equivalent to the benefits received. Finally, a tax is not imposed on a citizen by government because it has rendered specific services to him or his familyAnyanwu (1993) also pointed out that there are three staple objectives of taxation these are to raise revenue for the government, to regulate economic activities and to control income and employment.Nzotta (2007) also confirmed that taxes generally have parceling, distribution and stabilization functions.The allocation function of taxes talks about determination of the pattern of production, the good s that should be produced, who produces them, the distribution function of taxes relates to the manner in which the effective demand over economic goods is divided among the individuals in the society while the stabilization function of taxes deals with attaining high level of employment, a reasonable level of price stability and arrogate rate of economic growth, with allowances for effects on trade.ConclusionThe above listed methods/ policies has been used by so many countries to maintain economic stability and Nigeria as a country has introduced these policies which is now helping the government to stabilize the economy.ReferencesAnyanwu, J.C., 1993. fiscal Economics Theory, Policy and Institutions. Hybrid Publishers, OnitshaAnyanwu, J.C., 1997. Nigerian Public Finance. Joanne Educational Publishers, OnitshaGbosi, A.N (2008) contemporary Macroeconomic problems and stabilization policies, Portharcourt, Automatic Ventures.Heakal. R. (2013) Investopedia. What is fiscal policy? Onli ne Available rom http//www.investopedia.com/articles/04/051904.asp accessed 2nd June 2014.Iyeli I.I Ijomah M.A (2013) A Re-examination of fiscal policy applicability in Nigerias economic growth process An econometric policy evaluation from experiential evidence. Vol 3. (4 July 2013) P.180 188Jhingan, M.L (2006) Macroeconomic Theory. New Delhi. Vrinda Publishers.Nwoye .I. 2013, Privatization of Public Enterprises in Nigeria The views and counterviews. Online Available from http//www.globalizacija.com/doc_en/e0062pri.htm Accessed 3rd June 2014Nzotta, S.M., 2007. Tax evasion problems in Nigeria A critique. Niger. Account. 40(2) 40-43Omoh G. (2012) Public Private Partnership The new way to infrastructural provision, Vanguard, Online 17th December. P.7. Available from www.vanguardngr.com/2012/12/public-private-partnershi-the-new-way-to-infrastructural-provision Accessed 30th May 2014

Book of Galatians

Book of GalatiansIntroductionThe Book of Galatians highly believed to be written by Apostle capital of Minnesota was written in its original family as instructions to the Christians in southern Galatia, which was a Roman responsibleness in what is now Turkey. Galatia was the ara where on his premier(prenominal) missional tour capital of Minnesota established the congregations in Pisidia Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe .Although there have been several other(a) books written by bible scholars alike on capital of Minnesotas earn to the Galatians only if that of Ralph Martin and Julie Wu under review is by normal standard one of the vanquish an nonated books of understanding.The book is explicit and square away in its outline with the use of interest pictures and boxes to highlight points in a very concise manner, the colour conclave is attractive and makes the book appeal to reading and learning.Authorship and datePaul was attributed to have written no fewer than thirte en epistles in the newborn Testament. Out of this thirteen, seven are almost universally accepted, three are considered in some academic circles as other than Pauline for textual and grammatical reasons, and the other three are in dispute in those same circles.It was gathered that Paul writing documented today in the book of Galatians was a dictation through a secretary (or amanuensis), who would normally paraphrase the gist of his core, as was the practice among first-century scribes.It was also gathered that the message in the book of Galatians was first circulated among the Christians, where they were read aloud by members of the perform along with other works. That was why some bible scholars regard Pauls epistles which was say to have been written between 50-62 to be one of the earliest-written books, if not the first written book of the naked as a jaybird Testament as they were cited around c. 96 by Clement of Rome.It must be emphasised that this garner which was mostly traceable to Paul was vocalisation of the intensive trips/missions to the east and west of the Aegean Seaduring which he concentrated in the succession of the provinces of Galatia, Macedona, Achaia and AsiaAlthough, scholars have not agreed on a specific date because the exact yr is difficult to determine, but some placed the date of Pauls writing his letter to the Galatians between 48 to 52 AD.To some scholars the date was a clock when Pauls writing was put onwards the capital of Israel Council. According to then, the materials before the Council dealt with the egression of circumcision and the Law of Moses and whether such issue is relevant in view of the New Testament memorizeings.The argument here is that Pauls letter to the Galatians did not mention the Jerusalem Council and that if the council had met before the date of Pauls writing his letter, Paul would have mentioned the decisions of the apostolic council in Jerusalem. Before of this assumption, scholars believed Pa ul must have written this letter to the Galatians before the Jerusalem Council, which was around 48 to 49 AD.Expectedly, there is another theme of scholars who argued that Pauls Galatian letter should be dated at a date later onward the Jerusalem Council. According to this group, Paul began his second missionary journey after the Council had met. This group cited Acts 164 where it was recorded that Paul revisited the churches of Galatia to deliver the decisions reached by the apostles and elders in the Jerusalem Council. They also argued that it was after this date that Paul went to Greece to teach for close to two years age on his second missionary journey, this would place the date of its being written around 52 AD. subroutineGalatians intend was primarily to resolve the dispute among churches in Galatians. During Pauls mission in Corinth, turned teachers were overturning the decision of the Jerusalem Council by claiming that the Gentile Christians must be circumcised accor ding to the Law of Moses to be saved. To try to settle the matter, Paul wrote his letter to the Galatians from Corinth, where he was unable to leave his missionary work at the time. In other words, Paul wrote his letter to Galatians while in Corinth.Another purpose is for Paul to counter the Judaizer view. Paul was particularly interested in refuting the false teachers spread by false teachers and to remind the Galatians of the roots of their faith. The three issues contact false teaching Paul was trying to tackle includeThat Paul was not a true apostle and did not have the full reinforcement of the church in Jerusalem and that they (the false teachers) are the true apostle licence by JamesThat while Paul brought the Galatians the gospel of Jesus Christ, he had failed to give them the full undiluted gospel and thatWithout adherence to the Jewish Law, the church would have no ethical guidelines and would fall into immorality.StructureThe book of Galatians has 6 Chapters, and was w ritten in polemical style and tone, yet with a clear rhetorical structure and deep pastoral concern for the readers, to enforce the repeat themes of faith and freedom (9).The book is carefully structured into five pellucid parts. The first part contained greetings and introduction (Galatians 11-10). The second part (Galatians 111-221) was used to defend Paul apostolic ministry of the pure gospel as against the false teachers.The third part was used to defend the gospel of apology and salvation by grace and faith alone (Galatians 31-431) while the fourth part was dedicated to defending the freedom Christians have to delight in one another and live by the Spirit. Galatians 51-610. The last part includes conclusion and summation (Galatians 611-18).ConclusionThis work has been to review Pauls letter to the Galatians at the time the false prophets and teachers were spreading fake counsels and heresies about Paul and his teachings. The book was structurally crafted to treat the purpose and intent of Paul in a very clear manner. Pauls Galatians is regarded as his very first epistle in the New Testament.

Mass Media Effect On Promoting Copycat Mass Murders Media Essay

mussiness Media loading On Promoting anthropoid Mass Murders Media EssayThis research paper highlights on the ways that the press media has bring forwardd the emulator collide withs. The emulator effect is employ in reference to the situation for which a lurid publicity well-nigh the vehement stages of murders or suicides causes the tendency to declaration in more of correspondent effectuate through and through artificial.The Media operate or media effects are m geniustary value used in media studies, in psychology, communication theory and in sociology in reference to the theories concerning the ways in which the battalion media affect the way in which the audiences think or be live with. The critiques of the influences of media suggested that media squeeze proscribed weaken or delimit an individuals strength in working autonomously by connecting the world to the individuals and reproducing of self-images of the fiat, this characteristic of media is ascribed as an influence which is reminiscent of the telescreens, These Include all the benigns of media namely the intelligence servicepapers, TV, Radio, Internet and the Books.. The media generates instruction in a ne dickensrked setup, it then publishes the information victimisation the articles, videos, and the photos to the consumers, this influences the individuals ability to interpret the delivered information while at the alike sequence it potentially influences the unrelated heathenish and the personal beliefs, basing on the propaganda model. The Mass media content which is created for the newsworthy events and the untold stories have consequences on the consumers and culture so-and-so overly be influenced.The media has a fast social and cultural impact upon the society. This is due to its ability to reach a wider audience with strong and influential messages. The Television broadcasts have a stool of control over the content delivered to the society depending on the num ber ceremonial occasion and the times in which the equivalent content is viewed. The internet creates the space for divers(prenominal) political opinions, social and the cultural viewpoints and a higher aim of consumer participation.The ferment of agenda-setting is al some the unavoidable section of news gathering in the boastful organizations which are stakeholders of the quite a little media. The media is not a crude agent of propaganda, just it organizes the public understandings by providing the overall interpretations that are preferred by, and in most cases it is least challenging curiously to those with the economic power. News cover u page of ruby crimes serves the public interest, depending on how much inform is necessary if it is necessary to cover e rattling(prenominal) violent crime and the direct of detail. (McCombs Shaw, 1972)The coverage of crimes in the society can be a valuable tool in decision making. If the Individuals are decently informed, t hey can make rational decisions basing on their personal safety. In case the community has been misled, may it be intentionally or not, depending on the reputation of the crimes, and the rarity or commonality of the said crimes. When the coverage is an endless repetition of the apparently hollow tragedies, then it causes a numb effect on the population.The public interest may be the plea for the coverage of the mussiness murders, but in tangibleity profit is the real motivation, since the down media are in the business of making money and thence the smokestack media cannot ignore mass murders.The allegations the mass media unintentionally promotes the mass murder is a serious one. Hence the mass media determine the appropriate level of coverage and it is necessary to cover e very(prenominal) such crime. in that location is submit for the media to devise the methods for discouraging the shoot your way to temporary fame which encourages impersonator murders. It is translu cent that this chore has not been adequately addressed in the representing whole kit and boodle on the media morals.Literature ReviewA review on a number of the recent works in this field have suggested a trend the general problems of psychological and economic harm caused by wide or un honest mass media stateing has been considered in great depths, even so the very severe form of harm which is the unintentional encouragement of copycat murders has not been specifically discussed. A Noted author and the cultural behaviourist Loren Coleman explores how the medias over-saturated the coverage of the murders, suicides, and the deadly tragedies made an impact on the society. This is The Copycat Effect-the phenomenon in which violent events spawn madness of the same type. He recognizes the emerging patterns of the Copycat Effect, how to deal with and counteract the associated consequences as individuals and as the culture. Loren Coleman translates the academic research on the copyc at effects an understandable form in which He brings the imitation of violence to reality through the detailed case studies and the person-centered examples, such as the sensationalized reporting on suicide, sniper sprees, suicide via the airplane, suicidal cults, the set up-office killings, and the teenage suicide. The media is largely in a state of denial on how its coverage on the final stage incidents contributes to the violence and destruction of lives in the society. Loren Colemans in The Copycat Effect find exposed the major news events, which were encouraged and promoted by the mass media, and those which get repeated in lesser-known incidents which were covered primarily by the local news.Klaidman Beauchamp (1987, pp. 93-123, pp. 201-7)) discussed the issues on journalistic-induced harm, but only with respect to the damaged reputations and the business losses. Pointed to the problems of the news organizations which created the news events, including the problems inter national terrorism, they did examine the possibility that the journalists efforts can play a part in make a specific murder. Lambeth (1986) provides a thorough theoretical model in addressing the ethical issues on journalism, However, he fails to address the problem of media-induced harm.Hulteng (1981, pp. 71-86) sampled out the ethical codes of a number of the American newspapers he reprinted the complete text of codes of the ethics for the Associated Press Managing Editors, the American Society of the Newspaper Editors, and the Society of the Professional Journalists. on the whole these ethical codes address the issue of harm and balance in a very general way but do not straight off discuss how the coverage of a particular criminal act can lead to the copycat crimes.The news media is supposed to satisfy both the engagement of accurately informing the public about the nature of the societys murder problems, and the agreement of the stockholders to keep the circulation up. The inevitable public boredom with the coverage of the meaningless pocket-sized murders makes this an impossible act to balance.The media coverage on some murders in the sensational manner has been customized in many events. The editors justify this time-honored tradition basing on the economic considerations and in light of the major roles. The editors take to figure out the many innocent lives that will be sacrificed in order to come on the circulation, or promote the political agendas.These mass media studies suggest that that at that place is need for standardized means in which a kind of crime violence should be addicted the attention proportionate to its size, in relation to the its magnitude, and imbruted on the grandness of its victims. The Violent crimes of all types should be highlighted, in a relative way to other causes of suffering, which are proportionate to the social costs.Meyer (1987, pp. 155-156) points to the problem of the unbalanced reporting of the health and safety issues in the mass media causes the state of nature and inaccurate notions on the relative risks of various causes of death. He gives an example where a reported group of the greatly underestimated deaths caused by the emphysema, relates to the deaths by homicide. Meyer described one of the studies carried out by researchers at the University of Oregon, in which it was found that the pictures formed inside the heads of the plurality who were interviewed tended to be influenced by the spooky, violent world of the newspaper content as compared to the real world.It is important that the studies recognizes how the misleading portrayal of the real world can become an artifact of the popular morbid curiosity, that the newspapers must satisfy or lose in their circulation, this reflects what Meyer terms as, The Distorting Effects of the Perceptual Models. In brief, the journalists through the mass media enhance certain assumptions in their work. They make use of the facts which d o not fit into the journalists perceptual model that tends to be downgraded in its importance or ignored. This study bases on the facts which include the statistical depth psychology, even at the most basic level, but the primary liberal arts taste given to the journalists comes to the forefront takes the precedence. (Meyer, 1987, pp. 48-50)David Lesters (1989) study titled, Media Violence and Suicide and Homicide Rates. He summarized the two reports extracted from the home(a) Coalition on the TV Violence. The first report asserts that in that respect exists a negative correlation surrounded by the suicides and violent, media related issues, and a convinced(p) correlation in relation to the homicide at the same time. The second report asserts somehow similar, which does not statistically signify the relationships between the best-attended films, suicide and the homicide. Lesters shows that the National Coalition on the TV violence is not an objective source, Lester did not atte mpt to analyze the methods used, or critically evaluate the significance of these reports. in that respect are serious problems that prove or disprove the causal relationships that exist between the tv entertainment and the violent behavior therefore there is no reason to assume that the television news provides the easier opportunity for such research.MethodologyThis research employed a web based survey in gathering data on the Media influences and promotion of the copycat murders. I analyzed news coverage of the mass murders in succession and the News calendar week for the period ranging 1984-91 for the evidence of the disproportionate, coverage of certain categories of mass murder in a manner that influenced the occurrence of the subsequent incidents. I used this design in order to trace the root of copycat murders and at the same time justify the hypothesis which assumes that copycat murders are accelerated by media influences.. The putz was divided into two partsThe Descri ptive Analysis, which describes the influences of media in the individuals ability to render a crime as a result of the interests developed from the media highlights..The vital Analysis, which assesses the extent to which the American based print media, perpetuates the copycat murders. This involved the analysis of two main Newspapers, the Times and the Newsweek based on their modes of reporting the violent criminal incidences.Sample description and selection the copycat murder casesIn this research work the random sampling procedure was used in the process of data collection on the copycat murders, this was due to the nature of the topic which required many sources of information concerning the influences of mass media on copycat murders.The contexts for the study were based on the distinctive nature of the internet. Data was placid in the process of evaluation of the influences of the mass media and the mode in which the copycat crimes.Results Table 1 shows the data gathered on the different types of murde , it is exhaust that the fire-raising mass murderers and the knife mass murderers received relatively very little attention from the Time and the Newsweek. The data shows that, there is a very large discrepancy between the amount of coverage that given to the arson mass murders, and the mass murderers involving the guns exclusively. The fire arms leads with a factor of well-nigh nine times as much coverage as seen from the equality between the coverage given to the exclusive firearms mass murderers and to the arson mass murderers.MurdererMonth/YearDeadNewsweek sq. in.Newsweek Sq. Inches/DeadJames HubertyJul-8422157.507.16Sylvia SeegristNov-8520.000.00William Bryan CruseApr-8760.000.00David BurkeDec-874357.751.34Robert DreesmanDec-8770.000.00Ronald Gene SimmonsDec-871678.754.92Richard Wade FarleyFeb-8870.000.00Laurie Wasserman DannMay-88254.0027.00Patrick PurdyJan-896370.3461.72Joseph T. WesbeckerSep-89852.506.56James E. PoughJun-9090.000.00George Hen nardOct-912478.753.28Firearms Murders152849.595.59There is a large discrepancy that exists however, this is because of the many articles which mentioned Patrick Purdys crime. entirely even with the exclusion of all coverage of Patrick Purdys crimes (there is quiesce a very charitable assumption on the data by the Time and Newsweek, in consideration of the centrality to the Wesbeckers actions of the Times coverage), the square inches per dead body for the firearms mass murderers is still more than 5 times the coverage when it comes to the arson mass murderers. This salient difference was shown by Plotting the square inches per dead body mass media coverage on the selected murderers incidents as shown below.Plotting of the firearms mass murder coverage against time also showed some interesting results, as shown in Figure 2. In this case, the mass murder coverage rose dramatically with the crimes committed by Laurie Wasserman Dann and Patrick Purdy There is a sudden dived back from high to very low levels especially during the pre-Dann levels with the Wesbecker incident. The Time newspaper which is more prone to the coverage of the firearms mass murders to begin with Dann and Purdy, was the noticeably restrained of the two magazines as seen in its coverage of the mass murders from Wesbecker and onwards. There is a unique relationship pertaining the Time seen from the connection between their coverage of the Purdy, and the Wesbeckers bloody act?DiscussionThe cases analyzed included the interestOn January 17, 1989, a homosexual prostitute who was also a medicate addict with a very long history of the criminal offenses and moral disturbance, Patrick Purdy, directly to the Cleveland Elementary School in Stockton, California. He firebombed his car, entered a resort area during the recess time carrying a Chinese gun, a semiautomatic indication of the full automatic AK-47), he shot to death v children, wound 29 other children and the teacher, then shot himsel f in the head using a 9mm handgun.The Initial coverage of the Purdys crime was relatively restrained, where only the ingrained details were reported. The Time paper gave Purdy just part of a page in the first issue after the crime titled (Slaughter in a School Yard, 1989). The Newsweek gave a single page titled dying on the Playground, and pointed to the four prior attacks on the school children, it started with the Laurie Dann. The Newsweek included Purdys lose it in its article. Newsweeks article (Baker, Joseph, and Cerio, 1989) quoted the authors of a book with the content on mass murder Theres a copycat element that cannot be denied.A week later, Patrick Purdys name had received a lot of attention, and consequently his fame increased. At one point the front cover of the Time openly showed the AK-47 and the AR-15 which were crossed, beneath the delimitate of the U.S. which was stylized into a jawless skull, and titled, Armed America. Inside, the George Churchs The Other Arms Race, (1989) this in use(p) almost 6 pages, opening with Patrick Purdys name. Consequently the articles referencing Purdy or his criminal act continued to appear in Newsweek and Time for several months.Within the same year, On September 14, 1989, Joseph Wesbecker who was a disabled employee of the Standard Gravure Co. in the Kentucky entered into the printing plant similarly carrying the AKS and a 9mm handgun. A reminiscence of Purdys scenario, the Wesbeckers actions were abruptly detailed by the UPI wire service stories, particularly the William H. Inmans which was titled Wesbeckers rampage is boon to gun dealers (1989a) The most important fact is how the news coverage of the Purdys crime influenced Wesbeckers actions, and eve the identification of the weapon system of choice for such an act of savagery. ( Inman, 1989)The police investigated this incident and at Wesbeckers residence, they found the manuals on weapons and an article make on February 6 issue of Time magazine devo ted to the mass killers, including the one on Robert Sherrill, who slaughtered 14 people in the Oklahoma post office three years ago, and another one on Patrick Purdy, who killed five children with the AK-47 assault rifle in the Stockton, Calif, in January 1989. The same AK-47 was the main weapon used by Wesbecker.It is obvious that Joseph Wesbecker was not a healthy and well-adjusted person driven to commit his crime as a result of the sensational news coverage. The Time newspaper might have been prudent for having indirectly caused the horrible crime this temptation could have been avoided. The editors of the Time might have foreseen the high probability for this kind of coverage promoting the copycat crimes.In analyzing of the data, this research paper based on two related issuesThe level of the coverage that was given by the print media, the Time and Newsweek where certain crimes appeared to encourage the unbalanced people, who were seeking a lasting fame, by copying these cri mes as we seen in Joseph Wesbeckers 1989 homicidal rampage.The analysis of the quantity of the press coverage which was given to the mass murder as in the case of the Newsweek and especially the Time which gave the undue attention to the particular type of mass murder, hence to the blemish of the public safety.ConclusionThere are some positive effects from the mass media portrayals of the violence murders, according to a study the print and television have significant effects on the copycat murders some news reports have the major effects of promoting the copy cat violence and the killings. and then study conclude that the reporters are in need of some kind of consume on how the violence murder should be reported so as to avoid the potential negative effects that emanates from the mode of reporting to the public. There is the need to develop a journalistic style guide to determine the type of information which is recommended due to the potential positive or the negative effects. (Cairns, 1990, Price, Merrill, Clause, 1992, Wood, Wong, Chachere, 1991)The mode coverage of crime incidences in the society forms a very valuable tool in an individual decision making. The properly informed Individuals, can make rational decisions basing on their personal safety. If the population has been misled, be it intentional or not, it depends on the nature of the crimes, and the rarity or commonality of the said crimes. If the coverage involves an endless repetition of the apparently meaningless tragedies, it can cause a numbing effect on the population.The mass media generates information in a network, then the collected information is create using the articles, videos, and the photos to the consumers, this has the influences the individuals ability to digest the delivered information while at the same time it potentially influences the unrelated cultural and the personal beliefs, basing on the propaganda models. The Mass media content is created from the events and the untold stories which have effects on the consumers and their cultural orientation.

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics Essay

Sub Saharan Africa Ssa Politics Essaysub-Saharan Africa is the large-mouthedst authoritative support recipient locality of the field since 2001 having oer believen Asia as the largest embolden-receiving section. Since more than than basketball team decades ago, all over $1 tr liverishion has been disbursed to the region to spur culture and integrating into the spheric economy (Moyo, 2009 Dessai and Porter, 2009 and Handley et al. 2009). scorn the huge amount of charge watercourse to sub-Saharan Africa, widespread leanness, chronic hunger and prevalence of living-threatening diseases atomic number 18 unprecedented in the region. Institutions and scholars argon at once referring to food-malnutrition-hunger b early(a)(a)s in the develop countries as the third crises (Chibba, 201176-77).There atomic number 18 besides change magnitude dependency on countenance, impertinent technologies, existences and value dodge, (Todaro and Smith, 2011 Collier, 2008 Kelsa ll, 2008). The World Bank (2008) on the monitoring of the progress of MDG report that the first goal of halving absolute leanness has been disappointing in sub-Saharan Africa.The operateure of concern has gene pastured make out among scholars and policy practitioner alike. This is because of the failure of cardinal years of challenging helper interventions. Poor governmental leadinghip and half-hearted state institution of recipient countries, and the agenda and specificationality imposed by sponsor countries and governments are attri exactlyed for the failure of uphold politics and frugals of facilitate. However, the availability of commodious natural resources in Nigeria and another(prenominal) sub-Saharan Afri gouge countries construct non affected their fortune so-called resource curse (Ushie, 20121 TI, 2012 Handley et al 2009). The concern- harvesting experience, multilateral and bilateral institutions and prominent scholars like Jeffrey Sachs and Arndt e t al. in Chibba (2011) support the collect that embolden has a key utilization to play in achieving impoverishment reduction and festering. There are change magnitude demand for focussed help oneself to developing countries, especially small states, low-income countries and post-conflict states (Chibba 2011, Paulo and Reisen, 2010). Critics of Sachs work on services role in ontogenesis such as William Easterly (2006), Dambisa Moyo (2009) among others argued that pauperization could be solved more by income redistri exactlyion than by growth and that incite is iconoclastic to the economy of developing countries. However, the almost important thing is finding executable and real-world firmness of purposes to address both pauperization and ontogenesis challenges.The role of institutional flavour of a country is more significant and non closely connect to the volume of emergence assistance to the country. It is withal more important than the geographical location and integration of the country into world trade (Booth, 2011). He verbalise this could be an argument for neediness of strong positive link amid upkeep and nurture outcome in sub-Saharan Africa. Kofi Annan in UNDP 2006 renowned that regime issues remain all-important(a) elements of all st laygies towards poverty eradication and valet de chambre development prexyial term matters for development. Institutions, rules and semipolitical processes direct major roles to play in whether children have memory access to quality education, whether people have access to staple fiber things of flavour, and whether there is development or retrogression. Promoting valete development is beyond overcoming stintingal, brotherly and technological challenges it includes political and institutional challenges, which causes poverty and insulation to development (UNDP, 2002 Abdellatif, 2003).The governance crisis in sub-Saharan Africa is obvious in prevalent corruption, public function that are inefficient and inability of citizens to exercise their staple rights to choose their leadership court without justice, public officials demanding bribe and hospital without doctors and drugs. Good governance is crucial in eradicating poverty and promotes development through impelling institutions and rules. These can be achieved through function, transparency, empowerment, assorticipation and rule of law. Failures of sociable policies often occur because the beneficiaries lack political power and qualified representation in the decisions that affects their lives. Developing countries bequeath promote kind development for all with governance systems that are to the full accountable to the citizens. People can be better off when they can participate in the debates and decisions that affect their lives (UNDP 2002).For aid to achieve its aims, the people that aid design moldiness be empowered. Aung San Suu Kyi cited by UNDP (200252) argued, tuition as growth, pack aging and the realisation of potential depends on available resources and no resources are more stiff than people being empowered are. Governance for human developments moldinessinessiness protect human rights promote wider participation of the people in the institutions and rules that affects their lives. It is not just about efficient, equitable economic and social outcomes, but must embrace fair process. Succinctly, it must be democratic in essence and in line by the people and for the people (p, 52).Todaro and Smith (2011) state that development needs improved functioning of the public, cloak-and-dagger and citizens sector. Each of these actors has their weaknesses accountability. These weaknesses must be addressed to achieve balanced, shared and sustainable development. Civil inn organisations have the capacity to reduce accountability gap in globular governance. Scholars and policy-makers have come to accept the fact that active involvement of complaisant golf c lub organisations in governance will entrust solution to accountability deficit in global governance (Scholte, 2011). Civil society should be a major player to achieve that goals by mobilising communities, delivering operate and mold policies (Ibrahim and Hulme, 2010 Bank and Hulme 2012 and Collins 2012). To critics, civilized society might aggravate the problem because they themselves are vilely accountable to their constituency even if they have one (Scholte 2011 Steffeks et al, 2008, Kaldor 2002).The late(a) studies and inter state of matteral commitments reiterate the necessity of increasing search on poverty eradication and achieving sustainable development. Official monitoring of the feign of Paris firmness where authentic and developing countries make commitment to make aid effective by 2011 showed that altogether one of the thirteen targets has been met(OECD, 2011). Making aid effective and achieve its goal remains a crucial goal of development. democratic gove rnance is the answer good governance or good ample governance is democratic governance from human development perspective (UNDP 2002 Grindle, 2007).1.1 interrogation OBJECTIVEThis research intends to study how to overcome constraints to poverty reduction and achieving sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa.The research intends to answer these questionsWhat are the obstacles to poverty reduction and development in sub-Saharan Africa?What are the role of NGOs and civil society in promoting state in global and national governance institutions?What are the roles of civil society and NGOs in shaping governance policies and as alternative provider of social services?1.2 METHODOLOGYThere is an elongated literature on the role of state and non-state actors in governance of aid and capacities of different actors in governance institution towards poverty eradication and achieving human development in developing countries. This research will provide answers to the above questions by re berthing literature as a plunk forary data source. This mode is selected considering the timescale of the study. It is possible to carry out this type of research by evaluation of secondary data source in assessing the core issues and approaches in providing solution to the research questions. This allows the critical appraisal of different literature source. Ethically, there is no research participant, hence no implication on any. This research is curb to the review of relevant literature on role of CSOs in poverty reduction, development and aid in developing countries and no field researchThis research work is structured in five chapters. The first chapter marks doorway of the issues in aid governance, the rationality for this research and research objectives methodology. Second chapter captures the rationality for aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa. Its shed light on the challenges facing sub- Saharan Africa, and why aid has not been effective in reducing e xtreme poverty and promote human development. The concluding part of the chapter discusses global governance challenges and previous roles of NGOs and civil society in global governance and development. The third chapter discuss the centrality of democracy in governance and achieving sustainable human development. The focus of chapter four is the roles of NGOs and civil society in promoting democracy and addressing economic and development policy challenges. The fifth chapter is the conclusion of this researchCHAPTER deuceLITERATURE REVIEW2.1. RATIONALE BEHIND AID, AID DEBATE AND valet DEVELOPMENTAttainment of development by any nation depends on combination of factors. These include the countrys resources endowment and tribe its governments policies and objectives the availability of orthogonal superior and technology international flow of financial resources and the international trade purlieu (Todaro and Smith, 2011). External outstanding comes in three main forms. The fir st of these involves orphic foreign direct and portfolio investment by large transnational corporations and grease ones palms of bonds, stocks and notes in the developing countries credit and equity markets by private institutions and individuals. The second involves remittances of earnings by international migrants and the third involves public and private development assistance foreign aid. In the case of sub-Saharan Africa, there are factors that make it unattractive for private foreign direct and portfolio investment. Political unbalance and incessant military take-over economic factors and wretched business environment geographical factors majority of the countries in the region are landlocked nations and insecurity of life and neatty and poor infrastructure makes it unattractive as a sic for foreign investment (Sachs, 200563). In addition, remittances of earnings by international migrants are small. According to United Nation report cited by Todaro and Smith (2011), onl y Nigeria and Egypt have remittance of 4.7 and 5.8 share of their GDP.The above slur makes the role of aid in the development of sub-Saharan Africa significant. tending aims to fill the gap adjustment development by supplementing savings to boost investment for improving cultivable capacity and needed infrastructures that facilitate development (Burnell, 2008 TI, 2011 and Todaro and Smith, 2011702). The argument is that developing countries lacks adequate domestic help savings required for investment opportunities. Coupled with this, African countries have low foreign-exchange earnings to finance imports. Lack of physical and human pileus to attract private investment does not also help matter. Despite the increasing flow of aid, government policies and objectives are militating against its effectiveness.Defining foreign aid is conceptually problematic. To Dambisa Moyo (2009), aid is simply the sum total of both concessional give and grants. Concessional loans are entrepots to be repaid, but with a more booming repayment conditions to the borrower than what can be obtained through standard financial markets. It is fewtimes at the expense of the lending countries. Grants are money given for secret code in return. She mentioned three types of aid. The first is humanitarian aid. That is, aid in rejoinder to catastrophe and calamities. The second is charity-based aid. These are aid disbursed by charitable organisations (NGOs and other voluntary sectors) to institutions or people on ground (p7). The third form of aid is systemic aid. This is aid payments made directly to governments which could be all through government-to- government transfer( bilateral aid) or transfer through institution such as World Bank(multilateral aid).The widely used concept of aid is the combination of all official grants and concessional loans. It may be in variety or currency. Peter Burnell(2008), viewed aid as including transfer of finance, commodities and other goods, technical cooperation and debt relief and grants is the common form of bilateral aid to least positive countries because of their inability in the past to service concessional loans acquired,(p.503). The intention is transfer of resources from developed countries to developing countries to reduce poverty and facilitate development the common target of aid now (Todaro and Smith, 2011 TI 2011). The focus of aid on the human development, poverty reduction and good governance is a recent development in aid governance. The causa for the new focus of aid is the increasing high profile of other non-state actors in governance, particularly, civil society organisations (TI, 2011, UNDP 2007). This modify the monopoly of the state in promoting development and the role of these non-state actors are increasing as the power of the state declines and global economic activities intensifies (Dessai and Porter, 2008 499). They defined the state as the network of government, quasi-government and n on-governmental institutions (traditional institutions) that coordinates, regulates and monitors economic and social activities (p. 499).The US marshal Plan (1948-51) of post-war reconstructions in Western europium success set spur the use of aid vehicle in promoting development, but the failure of aid to achieve comparable in least developed nations is a case for concerns. The contemporary experiences generated change debate on the relevance of aid to national development and spurred the queries of rationalities fag aid (Moyo, 2009 Burnell, 2008 and 1997 Collier, 2008 and Todaro and Smith, 2011). In the first decade of twenty-first century, the common reason given by bestower nations for giving aid are righteous and humanitarian interest in helping the less privileged. Some development assistance has been in the form of emergency food relief and medical exam program currently in Afghanistan, Somalia, Haiti, Southern Sudan and Syria. As true as that may be, there are histori cal evidences that support the claim that no donor nation give aid without expecting something in return. Some of the reasons are political and economic gain, counterterrorism especially later on September 11, antinarcotics in Mexico and Latin America, and prevention of HIV and AIDS.Common motivation by donor countries is political benefits. Burnell (2008) argued that even US aid for post-war reconstruction in Western Europe was motivated by political and concerns for national security and superpower disceptation with USSR (Todaro and Smith, 2011). The hidden rationale of the US Marshall Plan was mainly to contain the spread of communism. The success achieved in bringing Western Europe subscribe on sound economic footing was clear, but it also gave US the advantage of influencing foreign policy with that part of Europe becoming its allies. It raise the emergence of US-led multilateralism (Moyo 200912). The focus shifted in 1950s from Europe to developing nations epoch the age nda of containment embodied in the US aid programme set(p) a shift in emphasis toward political, economic, and military support for matey less developed nations especially those considered geographically strategic (Todaro and Smith, 2011701).The Cold state of war marked the political contest between USSR and US. African countries were used as battleground to make the newly independent nations either communist or capitalist. The protracted disaster in Syria reflects the hegemony between Russia, China and US. In the Latin America, Alliance for Progress in 1960s was established to promote economic development of the region, but underlying that is the motivation to counter rise of Fidel Castro in Cuba and the fear of communism in other Latin America nations. The unredeemed fate of the Alliance for Progress showed its irrelevance to US scheme of affairs.date back to 1940s, Britain government gives aid for infrastructural projects to poorer nations, majorly to commonwealth constituent countries and British compound emergence and Welfare Act was established to fund social services (Moyo, 2009). In sum, Western donors give aid as a political instrument to prop up friendly political regimes in developing nations based on their own national security interest. Critics of aid argued that the controvert against AIDS is to prevent it from spreading to the West and likely state whirl that might be a haven for terrorist (Moyo, 2009 Maathai, 2009).There is strong economic rationale for foreign aid from developed countries. Chief among them are lacquer and Germany. Japan gave aid to less developed Asian neighbours to promote its private investments and expanding trade. Chinas aid in Africa currently have same motive. The aim of Marshall Plan was for Europe to notice their social, political and economic stability and to regain their level of development. US injected about $100bilion (current value of the aid package) as drive home package under George C. Marshal, the t hen US Secretary of State in 1947, for post- Second World War reconstruction in Europe. The birth of Breton forest institutions (IMF, World Bank and WTO) in 1940s with the agenda of restructuring international finance, establishing a multilateral trading system and formation of framework for economic cooperation to keep down the experience of the Great Depression of 1930s rein great power aid system. They were to raise capital investment for reconstruction and manage global financial system purposely to share investment risk between countries where all member nation bankroll the risk involved (Moyo, 2009 Todaro and Smith, 2011 and Dessai and Porter, 2008).Economic benefits also accrues to the donor countries especially from tied aid loans or grants that requires the recipient countries to use the fund to purchase goods and services from the donor countries. According to Todaro and Smith (2011705), a large fraction of US aid has been spent on American Consultants and other US bus inesses.The recipient countries accept aid based on their look on the economic tenets of developed nations as a requirement for the doing of their own development and in some cases and lack of domestic resources. To some corrupt leaders aid is attractive because they hardly account for it and sometimes used to suppress opposition and retain power military assistance. honourable obligation, some argued, compel the donor countries to assist the less developed nation on humanitarian ground. They believe that the rich countries, especially former compound masters such as Britain, US, France, Italy, Spain Portugal to mention a few, owe the poor countries reparation for their past exploitations.Aid and aid governance has generated hot debate and political disagreement among scholars, policy-makers and the public (Collier, 200899). The first argument is on aid effectiveness in promoting development. Proponents of aid believe that it has engendered economic growth and modify many devel oping countries. The Nobel Laureate, Maathai (2009), in her book The Challenge for Africa observed that arrangement for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) alone has provided over $650 one million million million in development assistance to sub-Saharan Africa. She mention the flows have not reversed the increasing death of poor African because of malaria, HIV/AIDS and other hurtful diseases. However, the impact of foreign media and development experts concern on Africa issues especially on preventable diseases has been helpful, but that is not the concerns of sub-Saharan Africa public officials.Collier (2008) far-famed that aid tends to speed up growth. In Africa, he pointed out that aid has added about 1 percent to the countries annual economic growth rate of the fathom billion. Though not encouraging, but according to him, the growth rate in those countries has been less than 1 percent or even zero. The aid addition to the growth rate is the difference between econ omic stagnation and severe cumulative decline and without aid, cumulatively the countries of the bottom billion over would have become poorer than they are today aid has been a keeping operation preventing things from falling apart (Collier, 2008100). The renewed commitment of the world leaders and international organisation involved in the governance of aid strengthened the position that aid is relevant to the development of sub-Saharan Africa. They agreed that right on administered aid would meet its development objectives (Paris Declaration, 2005). Critics of aid argue that aid does not promote growth and development, but contrarily may even be destructive to development of developing nations. Moyo (2009) vigorously criticised aid in Africa. She argued the tactual sensation that aid can alleviate systemic poverty and has done so is a myth. Millions in Africa are poorer today because of aid misery and poverty have not ended but have increased. Aid has been and widen to be, a n unmitigated political, economic, and humanitarian disaster for the most part of the developing world (p.xix).In the same vein, Peter Baueras cited by Moyo (2009), noted that aid distort development as the fund ended in the hand of a selected few. He said aid is a form of taxing the poor in the developed countries to enrich the new elites in their former colonies. Baueras reason that aid-based theories and policies are inconsistent with sound economic management and with reality of the situation in developing nations.The argument that aid had had little or no impact on the development of sub-Saharan Africa is strong. However, one can be curious to ask what befell the income from the countries earnings from natural resources and other revenues. In reality, those resources also have not been of any impact on the development of the region (Ushie, 2012 Handley et al. 2009 and Chibba 2011, TI 2012). Moyo (2009) agreed on this and admitted that the problem of Africa is beyond aid becaus e domestic earnings also seem to be a curse. Collier argued that the growth rate in countries with natural resources (oil windfall) such as Nigeria that earned over $280 billion from crude oil were not different from those other countries without such resources and with even negative effect of oil windfall on their economies. He lamented that more aid without changes in approach to governance is doomed to fail but as a general instruments (aid) for developing the bottom billion they would be more reassuring had oil and other natural resources revenues been more successful in achieving development(2008102). Maathai supported this claim Unfortunately, too many African governments have used their budgets, and their natural resources, not to invest in their people, but in precisely the opposite manner(Maathai, 200975).Another dimension of aid debate is aid-conditionality. Formal president of South Africa, Dr Nelson Mandela, at the United Nation point in 1995 said it is to perpetuate difficulties of the South for the North to relate to us as hapless victims to dictate to regarding loans and the employment of aid (cited by Todaro and Smith,2011684). competition against conditionality is popular among civil society, governments and the international institutions involving in the governance of aid. Conditionality-based lending started in 1980s with recommendation for economic policy and institutional reform with morphological Adjustment Programme taken central stage. It incurred resentment because people viewed it as coercive and offensive to sovereignty (Burnell, 2008505).Based on Dollar and Burnsides (1998) recommendation, selectivity was introduced to aid favouring countries that show commitment to sound development policy and good governance. Critics view this as depriving assistance to countries that desperately need the help. Nevertheless, Collier noted that aid agencies have little incentives to enforce conditionality because people get promotion by disbu rsing fund, not by withholding it. He advocated for a shift in the focus of governments to the welfare of their citizens. He argued that the internal process by which citizens force government to be accountable to them is weak in developing nations and must be strengthened. To achieve this, external pressure is needed and legitimate wherefore should we give aid to governments that are not willing to let their citizens see how they spend it (2008110). The focus of all stakeholders in aid governance now must be how to make it effective in meeting its development goals, because aid is at the heart of governance today and it is unlikely to disappear, (Moyo, 200966).Aid effectiveness can be viewed as efforts gear toward ensuring the maximum impact of development aid for getting the most possible lives improved. Elliot Stern et al (200820) based on the principle of Paris Declaration (PD) defined aid effectiveness as arrangement for the planning, management and deployment of aid that is e fficient, reduces transaction be and targeted towards development outcomes including poverty reduction. The theme of PD is how to improve the way aid is delivered and it was to supplement PRSP. It demands from donors to harmonise their assistance with the policies and systems of recipient countries to support country-owned development (Booth 2011). Development effectiveness of aid is conceived as the effectiveness of aid in promoting development. valet de chambre development requires more than achieving economic growth in GDP and top income. The focus of development must shift from national income accounting to people-centred policies.Development is defined as the process of improving the quality of all human lives and capabilities by raising peoples levels of living, self-esteem, and freedom (Todaro and Smith, 20115). Sakiko Fukuda-Parr (2003) viewed development as the elimination of obstacles to what a person can do in life. Obstacles such as illiteracy, ill health, lack of ac cess to resources or lack of civil and political freedoms. Amartya Sen (2001) noted that development should be viewed as a process of expanding the real freedom that people enjoyed. UNDP (2001) supported this by saying that the fundamental capabilities for human development are to live healthy and long lives, to be educated, to have access to resources for good standard of living and ability to participate in the life of the community.THE CHALLENGES TO DEVELOPMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAChallenges facing sub-Saharan Africa are multi-dimensional, most importantly, the prevalence of extreme poverty and chronic diseases across the region. They form one-sixth of the world universe, draw by Paul Collier (2008) as the bottom billion. Sachs (200518) described them as too ill, hungry, or destitute to step the take to the woods of development. The webs of poverty make it extremely difficult to escape it on their own. constitutional poverty, according to him, means that households are unable to meet their basic physiologic or biological needs for survival. Education is unaffordable for the children and there is no proper shelter for the household. Sachs (2005) reported that 93 percent of the world poor population lives in three regions East Asia, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. While it has trim down substantially in Asia, the percentage of extremely poor people has go up in sub-Saharan Africa (Handley et al. 2009 Moyo 2009 and Collier 2008).National Bureau of Economic search (NGO) as quoted by Maathai (2009) reported that the economic growth of the world grew at 2 percent between 1960 and 2001, but the reverse was the case in Africa. She noted, GDP growth was negative from 1974 to mid-1990s and by 2003, sub-Saharan Africa GDP bring down by 11 percent than thirty previous years (p.48). In early 1960s, only 10 percent of the world poor were African, but in year 2000, African population formed 50 percent of the world poor. The growth rate of sub-Saharan Africa cou ntries did not exceed 0.5 since 1960 when the population was 277million. With a population of over 900million, the growth rate remains unchanged. such(prenominal) economic performance cannot guarantee meeting the basic needs of the people.Moyo (2009) also noted that sub-Saharan Africa remain the poorest region in the world with per capital income of $1 a day, lower than what it was in 1970s. The number of people from that region living in abject poverty doubled between 1981 and 2002. UNDP(2007) cited by Moyo(2009) predicted that by 2015, one-third of third of the world poor would be African contrary to one fifth in 1990. Life expectancy stands at 50year, the lowest in the world. And still, across important indicator life expectancy, literacy rate, maternal- child mortality and income inequality the trend in Africa is not just downwards Africa is (negatively) decoupling from the progress being made across the rest of the world(Moyo 20096). Collins (2012) described poverty as one of the greatest challenges to human security and basic human needs. In Nigerian newspaper, the Punch of 27th February 2013, former president of US, Bill Clinton said the cause of Boko Haram (Western Education is bad) insurgency in the Nigeria and other sub-Saharan countries are rooted in prevalence of extreme poverty. Sub-Saharan Africa is now a theatre of terrorism.Some of the factors adduced for these challenges in sub-Saharan Africa are classified as geographical, historical, cultural, tribal and institutional. Collier (2008) argued that geographical environment and topography of a country determines its wealth and success. Some environments are easier to manipulate than others are. This gives some society opportunity to tend plants and animal better than others do. The climatic condition, location, topography, species of plants and animals influences peoples ability to provide food for consumption and export. These have positive impact on the economic and development (Moyo 2009) . Jeffrey Sachs (2005) gave example of how the climate and location of Britain helped in its economic and social development. He said, Geographical location of Britain enabled it to benefit from trade, productive agriculture and skill resources in vast stock of coal (p.35). He revealed that Britain has favourable climatic condition for agriculture and extensive navigable river ways for internal and external trade. The reverse is the case in sub-Saharan Africa.Historical factors particularly, compoundism was given as one of the reasons for poverty and underdevelopment in Africa. Sachs (2005) opined that Europe superior powers coax weaker societies to take action favourable to their advantage. They commandeered natural resources including natural wealth of Africa, and private ground forces were raised to ensure compliance (p.41). Maathai (2009) also noted that the legacy of colonial master the territories they established was meant to serve their interest. They had no genuine inte rest in the development of the local population, but in raw materials to their various countries. She noted that outcasts of the traditional society that cooperated with the colonial authority were elevated to positions that they would never have held in traditional societal institutions. This cultivated a system that de-emphasised meritoriousness and competence that still endures today. It perpetuates underdevelopment because merit and competence is not a condition in filling official positions against sound governance and justice.Even after independence, the new leader faile

Strategic Importance of Knowledge Management Essay -- Philosophy Knowl

Strategic Importance of Knowledge worryToday the land has more(prenominal) and more of free flow of randomness leading to fare of noesis from a person or an organization to others. Whereas this invariably leads to scurrying development, it in like manner impacts the competitive advantage held by the innovators of processes or technology. It has therefore plough strategicalally important for one and all in business to transform the noesis, processes and controls to effectively manage thesystem of sharing and transferring the information in the nearly beneficial fashion.This paper dwells upon definition, types, scope, technology and modeling of experience and Knowledge Management while examining its strategic importance for retaining the competitive advantage by the organizations. What is cognition?Plato first defined the concept of knowledge as justified accredited belief in his Meno, Phaedo and Theaetetus. Although not very accurate in cost of logic, this definition has been predominant in Western philosophy (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995). Davenport et al. (1998) define knowledge as information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection.The terms knowledge and information are often used inter-changeably in the literature and praxis alone a distinction is helpful. The chain of knowledge flow is entropy-information-knowledge. development is data to which meaning has been added by being categorized, classified, corrected, and condensed. Information and experience, key components of definitions of knowledge, are send into categories through the process of labeling with abstract symbols. This allows the process of synthesis to occur more efficiently than when dealing with masses of individual bits of information. Information coded into symbols to make it knowledge may be stored both inside and foreign the individuals. Thus, knowledge may be stored within a person in his mind or outside the person in books, manuscripts, pictu res, and audio and videotapes or discs. However, while that the individual himself may retrieve knowledge stored within his mind, knowledge stored outside can be retrieved by anybody familiar with the storage systems.In organizations, knowledge is often embedded not only in documents and presentations but also in organizational routines, processes, exerts, and norms, and through person-to-person cont... ...ress, New York, NY.Schultze, U. and Boland Jr, R.J. (2000), Knowledge precaution technology and the reproduction of knowledge work practices, Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 9, pp. 193-212.Stoner J.A.F., Freeman R. E. and Gilbert D.R. (2004) Management, Pearson Education, U.K.Swan, J. and Newell, S. (2000), Linking knowledge management and innovation, in Hansen, H.R., Tissen, R., Andriessen, D. and Depres, F.L. (2000), The Knowledge Dividend, Financial Times and Prentice Hall, London.Van Buren, M. (1999), A yardstick for knowledge management, Training and Devel opment Journal, Vol. 53 No. 5, pp. 71-8.Wagner, E. (2000), Communities of practice the structure of knowledge stewarding, in Despres, C. and Chauvel, D. (Eds), The Present and the Promise of Knowledge Management, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, MA, pp. 205-24.Wheelen T.L. and hunger J.D. (2004) Strategic Management and Business Policy, Pearson Education, U.K.Winter, S.G. (1987), Knowledge and competence as strategic assets, in Teece, D.J. (Ed.), The Competitive Challenge Strategies For Individual Innovation and Renewal, Ballinger, Cambridge, MA, pp. 159-84.

Red Badge Of Courage :: Essays Papers

Red Badge Of heroismThroughout the story many settings appear, the most important one is the battlefield. The clipping is 1862, which is the period of the Civil War. The story begins at dawn on a cold morning when the army rests by campfires on some hills. As a tall soldier, who later becomes known as Jim Conklin, washes his shirt at the river, he hears a rumor. He rushes to tell his comrades that the regiment volition run the following day. When the loud soldier, Wilson, hears this rumor, he argues with Jim that it is a lie. While this argument is victorious place, the youthful soldier and main character in the story, Henry Fleming, is auditory sense attentively. He then thinks what his reaction to fighting in battle will be. A flashback to when he first enlisted against his mothers wishes occurs. He remembers fantasies of splendid and bloody wars of times past. Henry thinks that war is a courageous adventure. This transports us to a different setting at his farmhouse. Dur ing this time, the people live a simple life mostly based on agriculture. The youth as well recalls his mothers lecture before departing. She could . . . give him many hundreds of reasons why he was vastly to a greater extent important on the farm than on the field of battle (p. 4). His mother warns him nigh taking care of himself and staying forth from bad companions.His mothers character symbolizes many different concepts. Because of the age in which the story takes place, one can imagine that this woman is uneducated. Her res publica lifestyle implies that she is a hard-worker, especially since no father-figure is present in the household. This image also sets an earthy, or realistic, tone contrasting with Henrys fantasizing. Her simple actions, such as knitting him socks, and farewell speech interpret her motherly love, which represents motherhood.In this mental setting, one learns of Henrys emotions about his mother and his views about war. He struggles with the idea of w hat his reaction will be to a real battle. The notion that he might run penetrates his thoughts. foot race would prove that he is not courageous or heroic and that his fantasies of wallow in war are just fantasies. The more he imagines himself fighting, the more he . . . failed in an effort to see himself standing stoutly in the midst of them, them being the threats of the future attacks (p.

Lead Poisoning :: essays research papers

ladder Poisoning One out of every six chelaren at a lower place the age of six are suffering from health disorders due to the poisonous metal, hunt. Lead is a natural occurring bluish-gray metal demonstrate in the earths crust. It has no taste or smell. Lead slew easily be found in all parts of our environment today. Most of it comes from mining, manufacturing, and the burning of fogey fuels. In the United States lead poison has increased because of the lack of familiarity in our society. Lead is released into the environment by industries, the burning of fossil fuels or wastes. When lead enters the environment, it starts to become a problem. later a period of virtually ten days, depending on the weather, it falls to the surface. Here lead builds up in the soil particles. Where it may make its way into underground water or drinking water due to the fact the grounds acidic or if its soft enough. Either way it stays a long eon on the soil or in water. Months or years shore the road after the lead has built up it starts to become a problem for children that play outside of their homes . This lead containing soil particles get on the childs hands or clothing and end up in the childs mouth. After the build up of so much lead it leads to lead poison. Lead poisoning has been an issue since the early 1900s, when the use of lead started being forbidden from the manufacturing of paint in foreign countries such as Australia. Unfortunately, the United States did not start banning it until 1978, when it finally became illegal in our nation. Today 90% of the lead in the atmosphere comes from the burning of gasoline. This problem has been a life-sized issue since the 1920s, when the Environmental Protection Agency started making laws on the summation of lead allowed in gasoline. There are many other ship canal that a child, especially under the age of six can be diagnosed to lead poison besides air pollution. One of the most viridity ways is when a child eats or chews on an object glass that has lead based paint chips in or on its surface. Parents can easily prevent this from happening by reading labels or buy objects which are not painted. Another way in a child can be affected is by drinking water that comes from lead pipes.