Reintroduce Children’s ASPIRIN

Given the respective scenarios and the projections described in the exhibits for each option, evaluate and choose the alternative that best optimizes Bayer’s prevention and children’s business. Explain. Upon reading the two options that have come up, the best alternative would be choosing the second option: Reintroduce Children's ASPIRIN worldwide as a prevention product and rename it under the brand ASPIRIN 100 ®. Figure 2 (See below) summarized that this option appears to have more benefits than the first option given.Although venturing into this option would require repackaging, relabeling, and reindicating the brand and it might accelerate the cannibalization of Pharma's sales, reintroducing the product could attract new users from competitive brands. As Joachim Zander analyzed the two scenarios under when they reintroduce their product: â€Å"Under the first scenario, we essentially create attention for ourselves and the market reacts. As a result, Pharma's high -end product, CardioASPIRIN ® , loses 10% of its sales due to our cheaper alternative.However, we also appropriate incremental sales of 10% from the competition. Beyond that, by keeping the product on the market, though in a new form, we are able to keep 20% of the children's ASPIRIN customers. Under the second scenario, I envision that the market does the opposite and reacts very little to our product change. Thus, Pharma doesn't lose any volume, and Consumer Care is unable to gain any incremental volume from the competition. Either way, we still keep 20% of the children's ASPIRIN customers.† Comparing Exhibit 6 with Exhibits 7A and 7B, the forecast losses in Option 1 will be substantially greater given the Middle and Worst Case Scenarios than what is featured in losses in Option 2. Although in the Best Case Scenario in Option 1 could appear to be advantageous, assuming that scenario to happen would be faulty. Also, as emphasized in Exhibit 5, although the sales of children ’s aspirin is declining, its margin against the Prevention CardioASPIRIN ® is still significantly higher.Keeping their seasoned and most valued customers who give them more profits will be the optimal approach. Thus, the win-win solution would be Option 2 because either way 20 percent of the children’s aspirin customers will be maintained. This business decision will be less damaging to the company, either best or worse case happens. 2. ) Do you agree with quantitative assumptions used to develop the forecasts? Why or Why not? Yes, I agree.In order to come up with the best decision, managers must make a number of educated assumptions about future trends and events and modify those assumptions once new information becomes available. Quantitative forecasts are typically based on historical data or tests and which involve complex statistical computations, which the Bayer Aspirin Case presented to represent the financial outcomes of the two options. Although quantitative forecasting is not foolproof, it is a valuable tool that enable managers to fill in the unknown variables that inevitably crop up in the planning process.For instance, the case study obtained the trend from 1994 to 1998 to formulate the outcomes of the trends in 1999 to 2003. The results they obtained indicated that prevention customers had been rapidly replacing children customers over the five years from 1994 through 1998. Forecast indicated by 2003 that approximately 27% of Children’s ASPIRIN sales would be for children and 73% for prevention customers, effectively reversing the 80% / 20% split, respectively, from 1994.Upon seeing the trends, Zander and Merker had the ability to conclude that Children’s ASPIRIN was naturally evolving into a low-cost, low-dosage prevention product. And it looked as if the combination of the rapid growth in the prevention market and the decline of the children’s market would be the death of the Children’s ASPIRIN brand. Of course, these are just assumptions and these could be wrong but at least the present trends could spell a lot with what will happen in the future.

Behaviorism the beginnings

Behaviorism is one of the most influential schools of psychology, especially American psychology. The development of behaviorism was spurned as a reaction to structuralism and functionalism. Behaviorism was posited as a revolution in the methodology of the science of psychology (Hothersall, 1995), while structuralism and functionalism have argued that the rightful object of study of psychology is the mind and consciousness and have developed methods that congruently were subjective and enabled the psychologists of that time to study the mind and consciousness.Although behaviorism has become established as a major force in psychology, in its earlier days it was not popular and embraced by many psychologists. However as behaviorism evolved and developed into a theoretically based and objective science many have found its assumptions practical and scientific. Western psychology’s history is short and colorful compared to other sciences, it started with structuralism from Germany with Wundt at the helm (Murphy, 1930). When psychology arrived in America it obviously followed structuralism, and since it was too philosophical for the American scholars.James developed his own paradigm and called it functionalism, which in essence focused on the function of consciousness in explaining behavior than in studying the structure of the mind. Functionalism held greater influence in American psychology but together with structuralism it still espoused that psychology is the study of the mind and consciousness. The zeitgeist of that period was that the focus of psychology is the understanding of the human mind and internal experiences (Hothersall, 1995).This inspired psychologists to devise methods of studying perception and consciousness in the attempt to discover the workings of the human mind. Research at that time was centered on identifying and describing physiological experiences and how it affected human behavior. Psychologists were comfortable with the notion tha t psychology is the study of the mind and most of them wrote about the self, attention, consciousness, perception and even mental processes that were believed to be the cause of human behavior.At this point, methods used to study the human mind were subjective and did not lend itself to replication and reliability which in turn questioned the veracity of psychological researches. Although functionalism stressed that the mind and consciousness were responsible for human actions, they viewed behavior as a product of mental processes and ignored its importance in the study of psychology. Functionalism however stressed the application of psychological knowledge to practical issues such as learning, education and organizational development.The pragmaticism of functionalism led it to the discovery that human behavior is as much important to study since it is directly related to the human mind. Functionalism also identified the shortcomings of structuralism and its methods and since it was heavily influenced by Darwin, functionalism also welcomed the idea of studying animals in laboratories to test psychological assumptions. While this new developments were gaining support, a new school of psychology emerged from the work and writings of Ivan Pavlov (Hothersall, 1995).Pavlov was able to demonstrate that a dog can be trained to salivate with just the sound of a bell intrigued some psychologists and became one of the most popular teachings in psychology; Pavlov called this process classical conditioning. In America, John B. Watson was impressed with the experiments of Pavlov that he embraced the idea that behavior is the mot important aspect of man that should be studied by psychology (Watson, 1913). John B. Watson was an influential person and he is conventionally credited to be the father of behaviorism as he strongly and eloquently articulated the new psychology of that time.Central to Watson’s argument was that he accepted that animal behavior is quite simil ar to human behavior and that they are legitimate subjects in the experimental study of behavior. Earlier, it was mentioned that behaviorism was revolutionary in the sense that it developed a methodology of study of psychology and that it held few theoretical explanations to human behavior. Watson (1913) posited that any behavior is a response to a stimuli and the relationship between the stimulus and the response should be the subject matter of psychology.Watson also erased the mental processes that the structuralism and functionalism was focused on, arguing that studying mental processes are futile and subjective and did not uphold the scientific and experimental tradition of the discipline. Watson became the editor of the Psychological Review, one of the earliest scientific journals in psychology and used his position in the paper to put forth his ideas and conceptualizations of psychology as the behaviorist would see it (Watson & Evans, 1990).Watson was a radical behaviorist, he always referred to himself as â€Å"the behaviorist† and it implied that he renounced all mental processes as devoid of any psychological insight. He reasoned that structuralism and functionalism are limited perspectives and it did not offer objective and rational explanations of behavior. He was famous for his experiments with Little Albert, wherein he conditioned fear of white and flurry objects in a small child. He demonstrated that fear can be conditioned and that it is manifested in different objects that fit the original object used as a stimulus (Watson, 1928).Watson believed that every action is a product of conditioning and that genetics or cultural orientations does not have anything to do with it. When asked to explain thinking, he said that thinking was not a mental process per se; instead it is an act of speaking in symbolic form (Watson, 1913). Watson’s intense dedication to behaviorism led him to believe that he can train any child to become what he wan ts them to be by subjecting them to the environment and experiences that would support this personality (Watson, 1928).Watson was a true-blooded behaviorist and this actually was the main criticism leveled against him. Psychologists who were trained in the functionalist and structuralist traditions had difficulty accepting Watson’s theories since it took out the mind and consciousness in psychology. There were a number of supporters but they also believed that mental processes are as much important as behavior. another criticism of Watson was that behaviorism was too deterministic, it seemed that the person had no free will since he/she is controlled by his/her environment.It can be remembered that psychology was the child of philosophy and for those who were trained in philosophical logic stressed free will, choice and freedom. Support for Watson waned in the later part of his career since he became too caught up in his assumptions on behaviorism that his contentions became too radical and lacked scientific credence. Watson’s major contribution to psychology is his emphasis on objective methods of research and the use of rats and animals in the study of psychology.Behaviorism became one of the great schools of thought in psychology because it evolved and developed into what we now know as modern behaviorism (Hothersall, 1995), a theoretical perspective that still focuses on human behavior as the object of study but have come to acknowledge the importance of mental processes, genetics and environmental experiences, as well as using methods that not only seek to elicit behavior but also gives due attention to thinking, attention, emotions and consciousness.References Hothersall, D. (1995). History of Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Murphy, G. (1930). A Historical Introduction to Modern Psychology. New York: Harcourt, Brace & Company, Inc. Watson, J. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. Watson, J. (1 928). The Ways of Behaviorism. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishing. Watson, R. & Evans, R. (1990). The great psychologists: An intellectual history 5th ed. New York: HarperCollins.

Human resources management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human resources management - Essay Example In order for effective strategic planning to take place, both risk and uncertainty must be categorized and classified. Merely because it is not known what might come of a certain situation, decision, or action, this does not provide the leader, or leadership team with an effective excuse for not at least considering some of the likely externalities that might come out of a given situation (Kim 65). For instance, if a particular individual within leadership, or 18 of individuals within leadership, are distinctly aware of a potential risk that they face, they would be patently foolish to ignore the risk and not focus upon the means by which they can prepare for the eventuality that all of the possible outcomes may portend. Some of these might be negative, some of these might be positive; however, regardless of whether they are positive or negative, it is necessary for the individuals within leadership to at least planned for them so that when they occur the maximum amount of utility ca n be gained from whatever eventuality presents itself. The decision-making process cannot and should not be understood as something that is undifferentiated from the individual to the group. What is meant by this is that an individual making a decision necessarily engages in the process in a far different way than does the group seeking to make a decision. All too often, leaders within a particular management team are of the opinion that an individual decision must be made in far too many circumstances (Klinke & Ortwin 275). However, the fact of the matter is that employees/stakeholders, are not only their two perform useful work; they are also there to leverage upon their own decision-making and encourage their participation within the decision-making process. As such, the individual decision-maker would rely upon the accident information and personal experience that he or she might have with regards to solving a particular situation. Leadership is not something that can be effecti vely performed utilizing either a firm understanding of one or the other aspect of risk or uncertainty. Rather, it is necessary for a true leader to be well rounded in the strategic planning for both of these factors. By allowing for a well balanced approach that considers the means through which both risk and uncertainty plays into the expectations for success and threats of failure that integrate with the future of the firm. Whereas it is tempting for an individual to rely upon a given focus to a greater or lesser degree, the more appropriate response is to allow for strategic planning to take place in a well nuanced manner; fully mindful and cognizant of the degrees to which strategy and planning are part and parcel of the role that any leader and/or effective manager must engage. By comparison, a leader within a group would have the possibility and likelihood of drawing upon the inputs of the stakeholders as a means of making a well-informed and dynamic decision. Neither approac h is correct or effective in each and every situation; however, from an analysis of the existing documentation and a integration with the information that is thus far been presented course, it is the understanding of this particular student that the group

Developing an Implementation Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Developing an Implementation Plan - Assignment Example Additionally, peer support will contribute to enthusiasm and buy-in for the implementation process. Administrative support is equally important because it will influence the degree to which institutions will implement the program. Below is the process of obtaining informal approval: Formal approval will require the submission of the program implementation plan to Site Based Research Review. SBR will review the proposal to assess the validity and legality of the contents of the plan. Afterward, the SBR will assign a director who will then forward the proposal to the Institutional Review Board (IRB) for review. The implementation will then commence after the approval of the IRB. Research studies reveal that health associated infections (HAIs) are some of the most common complications that healthcare organizations and practitioners face. For instance, a new research study reveals that more than two million people develop HAIs every year. The infections result in approximately 1,000 deaths every year. HAIs are also responsible for health care costs in excess of 30 billion dollars. Thus, addressing the issue of HAIs is critical in reducing healthcare costs and enhance patient safety. One of the approaches to addressing the problem of HAIs is reducing the prevalence of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection (CAUTI) among patients. CAUTIs are the most typical examples of HAIs, and they account for more than 35 percent of infections. The U.S. Department of Health estimates the total annual cost of CAUTI to be 565 million dollars, and the annual rate of deaths from CAUTI is 8,205 (). Additionally, approximately six hundred thousand patients develop urinary tr act infections from hospitals and cases of CAUTI are approximately 75 percent. However, the good news is that researchers have revealed that healthcare systems can prevent CAUTIs and that approximately 70 percent of CAUTI episodes can be prevented. Additional research studies reveal that patients

The California Sutter Health Approach Research Paper - 2

The California Sutter Health Approach - Research Paper Example According to the paper the United States of America healthcare system network has huge revenue collection within its patients. However, the payment system has laid down proper measures, targeting revenue collection procedures to curb problems that have affected the accounts department on the traditional ways they have been using. The main objective of this research is to identify accounting approach and practices California Sutter used in defining and solving its collection problems and giving concrete solution on the based prevailing issue. This study outlines that in the year 2006, the Sutter Health service provider committed itself in giving their staff patient financial services with an aim of improving their patient collections. It was at this point that the staff began to work towards the registration process with an aim of transferring all function within financial approach. The payment system has laid down proper measures, targeting revenue collection procedures to curb problems that have affected the accounts department on the traditional ways they have been using. This research however, it is going to analyze the reasons, meetings that were held, discussion laid down, steps and results that Sutter health engaged to provide quality services within the states of America. Sutter Health service provider is a non-profit organization found in Sacramento States, CA based on the hospital system and healthcare practices. In the line of duty, the firm faced a major problem since within the Sutter family that comprises 48 , 000 physicians, employees and volunteers, they were overwhelmed on providing services of more than 100 northern California cities and towns.  

Information Systems Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words - 1

Information Systems Strategy - Essay Example Current paper focuses on the identification of the value of information systems within modern organizations proposing at the same time effective strategies so that the use of these systems in business environment to be improved offering the necessary support to the further improvement of organizational performance. The major challenge of this paper is to locate the major problems related with the administration of Information Systems within modern organizations; however if taking into account the fact that each specific business develops its own strategies regarding the gathering, process and distribution of information, then it could be assumed that a general framework in which information systems are developed – referring to modern organization – would be adequate – at least at an initial stage; a more detailed explanation of the role and the methods of development of Information Systems in modern organizations could take place using specific examples of firms or organizations that already operate within the modern market. In fact, two such organizations have been chosen for the above task while a series of other applications of these systems in business sector is presented in order to help towards the understanding of the value of these systems and their contribution to the improvement of organizational performance worldwide. In this context, current study is considered to be of significant importance highlighting the criteria of successful implementation and administration of information systems in modern organizations. It should be noticed that the examination of the value of IS in modern business environment will be conducted referring both to the theoretical and the practical implications of the IS management on organizational performance; for this reason a summary of most common IS management practices will be presented at a first level while a reference to specific organizations

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Marketing - Essay Example 13). Both definitions focused on the term being a philosophy or an orientation designed by management where the important elements for success and profitable financial performance of a firm is anchored in satisfying the needs of the target market or the potential customers – more than competitors do. Analysis of the Concept The marketing concept could be closely evaluated using an organizational example: Coke versus Pepsi. Bhasin (2010) described in his article that â€Å"the marketing concept proposes that the success of the firm depends on the marketing efforts of the company and in delivering a better value proposition as   compared to its competitors in its own target market† (Bhasin, par. 1). Coke’s marketing strategy is to provide customers with a product that has been envisioned to be timeless, not restricted in boundaries, applies to all ages and generations and is able to captivate and satisfy the thirst and refresh its clientele.

Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner - Essay Example Ludwig van Beethoven was also a masterly composer. His compositions are grouped according to numbers, and a significant composition by him is the by opus number. The numbers were assigned by publishers, which follow the order by which his famous compositions were published, and not what they meant. By this way, he created a second theme that sounds like an outgrowth or variation of the first theme. Though it is an inadequate statement it can actually be pinned down when some of their work is compared like; the opening movement of Beethoven’s Symphony 5. Mozart, on the other hand, was conservative and followed the rules. His music is in the confines of boundaries which he imposed on himself, yet they were still so marvelous, and he left us many incomparable masterpieces. Mozart was zealous in opera and stood unsurpassed and Wagner agreed that Mozart was a formidable competitor to him in the opera world. Mozart was also prominent in the world of composition for churches and his skills stand unsurpassed by Wagner and Beethoven. Beethoven, on the other hand, took a little touch of music from the two and them and infused his own unique personality into his music. Mozart composed less technical music it was precise and thematic and was designed to be played by any level while Beethoven and Wagner’s music was more aggressive. The two latter wrote their music with tension this does not come as a surprise since the Mozart played for royalties while Beethoven and Wagner played for the people.... Another renowned composer is Wilhelm Richard Wagner who was German by decent. One of his compositions was the Siegfried which is the 3rd that make up ‘Der Ring des Nibelung’. Siegfried is the third of Wagner’s operas, which he wrote, in 1851. Siegfried premiered as part of the complete ring cycle at Bayreuth on August 16, 1876 (Kivy, 2001). The three composers concentrated mostly on the classical style. It was the most popular style which both the three used alongside other styles like the romantic style. The use of sonata was the most defining characteristic of the style which was classical. Sonata was so pervasive at the time, that it invaded each and every genre of music eve church music as well as opera. The three composers above under discussion each created compositions that are a hybrid of other forms and the sonata form. An example is the fact that they used rondo form, variation form and blended it all with the sonata form. ‘Sonata form begins with simplicity and tonal stability, builds in tension towards a middle section, and reduces complexity and tension in the last section. The climax is always in the middle. That is where the most complex textures are usually found, as well as the most far-ranging key changes, and the most agitated rhythmic patterns’ (Wolff, 26). Beethoven liked to use a combination of Mozart’s use of multiple themes and Wagner’s monothematic technique. By this way, he created a second theme that sounds like an outgrowth or variation of the first theme. Though it is an inadequate statement it can actually be pinned down when some of their work are compared like; the opening movement of Beethoven’s symphony 5 (Wolff, 1990).

SOPA and PIPA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

SOPA and PIPA - Essay Example egislation more acceptable to the technology community, content industries should have designed the legislation in such a way that it does not raise concerns about its ability to censor lawful activity. Content industries should also have ensured that the legislation does not threaten to disrupt the underlying architecture of the Internet especially because the legislation would remove an entire domain. These industries would have made the legislation more acceptable to the technology community by allowing targeted sites more time (than five days) to submit their appeals. This would give them enough time to defend themselves before losing the site and revenue (Blakeney 45). The money that piracy provides technology companies is a lot and this will make it difficult for the technology community to support curbs on piracy. Many internet users like the convenience with which they can get some materials from piracy sites and that is why they do not mind paying millions of money in order to keep getting accessing those materials. Technology companies make a lot of money from advertising networks that market piracy materials. They will also reject piracy curbs because they make a lot of money from providing links to sites that run piracy business (Blakeney

Good vs Evil in Gregory Maguire’s “Wicked” Essay Example for Free

Good vs Evil in Gregory Maguire’s â€Å"Wicked† Essay What is good and what is bad seems pretty easy to define. Good is being morally right, an action or a quality that does not cause harm to people, harm to self, nor cause sadness. Goodness benefits others, if not the self, and it causes happiness. Evil is the opposite of good, or the absence of good. But these are only the general meanings of these two concepts. In religion, good and evil are represented by different beings. In Christianity, being good means to please God, the Creator. Jesus Christ is also good, and heaven is where good souls go to. On the other hand, the Devil, being a fallen angel, represents evil, and hell is where bad souls are tortured for eternity. Other religious practices in the world may or may not have divine beings that people worship, but they also have concepts of good and evil. Evil is defined by goodness. If good is defined, bad is automatically defined as well, because bad is, to put simply, not good. For example, if good would be represented by a child who obeys his/her parents, then bad would be a child who does not obey his/her parents. The question is what if the â€Å"bad† child has a reason to not obey his/her parents? What if the reason is besides being bad, such as what if the child disobeyed his/her parents to fulfill a promise to a friend? Good and evil only represents the black and white, but reality tells us that there are also grey areas, some things which are not exactly bad, but not exactly good either. Gregory Maguire’s novel, â€Å"Wicked†, a sort of prequel to the classic children’s novel, L. Frank Baum’s â€Å"Wizard of Oz†, is about good and evil, and these grey areas in between, which are acts done by people which are not good but also not evil. It tells of the story of the infamous Wicked Witch of the West. In the original â€Å"Wizard of Oz† books, the witch is not named, only given the title of The Wicked Witch of the West. Described as green-skinned, wearing black clothes with a black pointed hat, riding on a broomstick, and afraid of water, this witch character became almost a stereotype for all other witches. In â€Å"Wicked†, this witch is given the name Elphaba Thropp, with the first name take from the initials of the original author of â€Å"Wizard of Oz†. One of the first things that readers will notice and perhaps find interesting is the quotations in one of the first pages. Maguire quotes three, one of which is from â€Å"The Wizard of Oz†, about the dialogue between the Wizard and Dorothy. The Wizard requests Dorothy to kill the Wicked Witch of the West, and in return he will help her return to Kansas. This quote may make a child think, given that the child fully understands what is morally right and wrong in the society. Killing is wrong. Why should Dorothy kill the witch? Because she is bad? But killing a bad person will not make a person good. Or does it? Does a wrong action turn into a right action if there is a good reason for committing the action? With this quote, a person who is about to read â€Å"Wicked† will start thinking about the nature of good and evil, and will get the central idea of the book. In the first part of the â€Å"Wicked†, the birth of Elphaba is told. Readers will learn the occurrences when she was born and the background of her parents. From the time she was born, Elphaba had skin of â€Å"undeniable green† (p. 20). She also had sharp fangs that she bit off the finger of the fisherwife when she was still a baby (p. 20). These different characteristics makes her an oddity, and somehow inhuman. For this reason, it is assumed that Elphaba grew up being a victim of prejudice. This prejudice later proved to be an important experience for her, because her intentions and motivations all came from the prejudice and cruelty that she experienced as a child, and even as an adult. Despite this, she grew up smart and curious. She also questions things that most people accept, such as the concept of evil. In a conversation with Galinda, she asks if evil does exist. â€Å"They seemed to be obsessed with locating it [evil]†¦ an evil spring in the mountains, an evil smoke, evil blood in the veins†¦ â€Å"†¦ The early unionists†¦ argued that some invisible pocket of corruption was floating around the neighborhood, a direct descendant of the pain the world felt when Lurline left. Like a patch of cold air on a warm still night. A perfectly agreeable soul might march through it and become infected, and then go and kill a neighbor. But then was it your fault if you walked through a patch of badness? If you couldn’t see it? † (p. 80-81) This is foreboding, because later in the story, Elphaba does â€Å"walk through a patch of badness†, though she does not mean to walk into it.

Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea

Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Introduction Green tea was originated from China and has been consumed for thousands of years. It was initially used as a natural remedy and in religious ceremonies before it became a beverage. Heavy green tea drinkers like the monks and Japanese have been known to live longer than average people. It is believe that regular consumption of tea is good because it helps to relax ones mind, decrease his need for sleep, and lightens his weight by reducing fat in the body system. These observations have been gradually proven by scientists. Today, several billion cups of green tea are consumed daily by people around the world. It has become one of the most widely consumed drinks and popular even among younger generations who are health conscious. Although the majority of drinkers are Asians, it is gaining popularity in the West as more people hear how beneficial it can be to human health. Many people who used to drink coffee or black tea with milk are now joining the trend of drinking green tea. Those w ho do not enjoy drinking green tea but want its health benefits can take green tea extracts in the form of supplements. Aims for the dissertation A lot of studies and research have been done on green tea extracts and their effects on health the past few decades. While most scientists confirmed the goodness of green tea, some experts expressed concerns about the potential health risks of consuming too much green tea extracts. The objective of this paper is to look at the benefits and drawbacks of consuming green tea. It also attempts to find out whether green tea is really so good and as safe as so many people claim or think it to be. Methodology There are now many books about green tea, websites designed to inform and update visitors on green tea, as well as thousands of scientific articles, research studies and media reports on the health benefits and potential risks. This paper was based on information and data from secondary source, mainly literature review of books, journal articles searched from the Internet database and newspaper reports. Updates from government and official websites were also used. Overall structure This dissertation looks at the history of green tea, its composition, applications and uses. It then discusses the health benefits and potential risks of the green tea extracts, as well as the controversy about some of the health claims. Background There are different varieties of the tea plants and as many as 500 existing species of tea grown in around 50 different countries, with China having the most species than the others. Most tea specialists prefer to cultivate the species Camellia sinensis which almost all green tea comes from. Green teas are made exclusively from the young leaves and buds of the Camellia sinensis plant. This plant is a slow-growing evergreen perennial tree of the genus Camellia, which survives in tropical or sub-tropical rainforest climates and thrives at altitudes of 2,100 meters above sea-level. The two parent strains were originated in Darjeeling, Assam and China. In order to harvest them more easily and conveniently, the trees are kept short as shrubs. There is no uniform grading for green tea. Good quality green tea consists of a leaf and a bud. The eight criteria to determine good green tea are the appearance, shape, colour, completeness, aroma, liquor, flavour and wet leaf. Green tea processing Teas are classified into three major types, depending on how they are processed: green, black and oolong. Green teas are made from unfermented leaves. They are steamed, roasted, or pan-fried almost immediately after being picked. Since there is no time for them to ferment, no chemical change occurred. This is why it tends to be lighter in color and have the delicate green character. Oolong teas are produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a partial fermentation stage before drying. Black teas undergo post-harvest fermentation stage before drying and steaming. As a result of the fermentation and oxidation, many of the components in the tea leaves that are beneficial for health are destroyed during the production of black tea. Green tea is considered better than black tea or oolong tea for health reasons because it does not go through fermentation or oxidation during its production. It is the purest form of all teas. In China, green tea leaves are allowed to dry naturally before they are roasted or pan-fried. Such treatments prevent fermentation and soften the leaves which will then be rolled and twisted to remove additional moisture. The Japanese use a steaming method before rolling, twisting and drying the leaves. Chinas green tea is known to be the most delicate of all with a sweet and mild grassy taste. Some of the best Chinese green tea like fine Dragonwell could result in five or more infusions. The best green teas are those picked during early spring around the time of the Qing Ming Festival. Modern tea masters could list 500 or more green teas which could be plucked and processed slightly differently to give slightly different taste. History of green tea Green tea has been used by people as a healthy and medicinal drink for thousands of years. There are many different stories about how it was first discovered. The most popular one from China dated as far back as 2737 B.C. The Chinese legend described how Shen Nong accidentally discovered the soothing taste of the beverage after a leaf dropped from a tea plant into a pot of boiling water while he was in the garden. He became very interested in the infusion and began to study about its various healing properties. Other stories of tea link it with Zen Buddhism. Whichever is true, there is no doubt that tea was originated from China. Anthropologists have reasons to believe that prehistoric humans living in the area of Yunnan chewed on the leaves of tea trees to increase their alertness when hunting. Fresh green tea leaves were gradually used by people for medicinal properties such as to treat depression, digestive and nervous conditions. During the Han dynasty, tea plants were known to b e grown by monasteries in Sichuan. Some people started to steam tea leaves and then compressed them into cakes. These tea bricks would be baked and hardened so that they could be prevented from spoiling and be kept for a longer time. By the Tang Dynasty, as tea cultivation improved and trade increased, tea drinking became very popular in the upper class. Tea rules and ceremony were developed during this golden age of tea. Gradually, tea was consumed as a common healthy drink for all levels of society in China and Tibet instead of mainly used as a remedy to treat different health complaints for certain groups of people. Around A.D. 780, a book dedicated to tea called Cha Ching (Tea Classics) written by Lu Yu was published. He described in great details how tea was grown, cultivated and processed. He even wrote about the utensils and proper way of tea consumption. It was Lu Yu who transformed the process of tea drinking into a form of art, which would eventually be passed to Japan by monks who travelled around Asia. As the popularity of drinking tea continued to grow in China, a tea culture began to develop in Zen ceremonies and secular society in Japan, where the tea plant was able to adapt very well. The tradition of drinking green tea involves a wide range of green tea and is still an important part of their society. By the 12th century, tea plants were already exported to Japan on a large scale. It was until the 14th century when the culture of drinking tea was first introduced to Europe via the Silk Road and soon spread to other parts of the world. During the 1600s a Chinese ambassador brought tea to Moscow which led to a flourishing tea trade to Russia. The Manchus were in power when China was the most important trading country in the world and tea trade was a monopoly. The Portuguese were the first traders to bring tea to Europe in large scale. China was able to be a sole exporter of tea by keeping the knowledge of tea cultivation technique for a long time. It was the British, eager to learn how to cultivate tea, who uncovered the secret of growing tea outside China in the 1800s. They sent a man to China who disguised himself as a merchant. The seeds he collected in China were brought to India but efforts to cultivate them failed. However, experiments using the Chinese techniques to grow loca l India tea plant were successful. Since the 19th century, the British began to cultivate tea on plantations in the colonies of India and Sri Lanka. It was only then when black tea, mass-produced and sold in packets, became more popular in the rest of the world. Nowadays, the tea plant is cultivated in many countries around the world, with China, Japan, India and Sri Lanka being the greatest producers. About 3.1 million tons of dried tea is produced every year, 20% of which is green tea. Although green tea has been consumed by the Chinese and Japanese for such a long time, its popularity increased only gradually in the West as the health benefits became more widely known. This is because green tea research has been widely conducted only in recent years by scientists. In fact, well-publicized results of research on green tea have been available only since the early 1990s. Green tea is now one of the most popular beverage consumed by people besides water. In some places, brewed tea steeped from carefully harvested green tea leaves of delicately grown tea tree is treated like prized wine or rare coffee. As studies continue to show evidence of its benefits, green tea will continue to be sought after by more and more people everywhere. The use of green tea and its extracts by manufacturers will continue to increase as green teas reputation keeps growing. Green tea components While the history of green tea is long and interesting, its chemistry is complex and studied by scientists only quite recently. To understand more about green tea extracts and their effects on health, it is necessary to look at the composition as well as chemical and biochemical properties of green tea. The composition of green tea leaf is very similar to that of other fresh leaf since green tea, being the most natural form of tea, is made from unfermented leaves from the tea plant. Only a few changes to the enzymes of the leaves occur right after they are plucked from the plant and some new volatile substances are produced when they are dried. The buds and leaves of the tea plant contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and the genetic material necessary for growth and photosynthesis. The main constituents of the leaves are polyphenols, the catechin and catechin-derived antioxidants; caffeine; theobromine; theophylline; and theanine. Other compounds in green tea that affect the human health are fluoride, minerals, vitamins such as B1, B2 and C, and trace elements such as chromium and manganese. Table 1 Mean Composition (%) of Green Tea Compound Green tea* Phenolic compounds** 30 Fibre 26 Proteins 15 Others carbohydrates 7 Lipids 7 Minerals 5 Amino acids 4 Pigments 2 Oxidised phenolic compounds*** 0 *Data referred to dry weight of tea leaves. **Especially flavonoids. ***Especially thearubigins and theaflavins. [Sources: Belitz DH, Grosch W(1997), Qu?mica de los Alimentos. Zaragoza: Acribia] The amount of these ingredients differs according to where the green tea is cultivated and age of the leaves. Young leaves and buds contain more caffeine while older leaves have larger amount of tannin (flavonols).[2] Fresh green tea buds and leaves contain 75-80% water while the polyphenol components make up the remaining 20-25% of solid matter. Careful drying could prevent changes to the active ingredients of the green tea leaves whereas fermentation and oxidation that occur when black tea is processed would cause chemical changes. This leads to the major difference in the effects and taste between black tea and green tea. Green tea extracts are herbal derivatives from green tea leaves which are used or taken orally by people. The extracts can be divided into 4 categories: a) Strong infusions Green tea leaves are processed by soaking in alcohol solution; b) Soft extracts the solution made by strong infusion is concentrated to 20 25%; c) Dry extracts the solution from strong infusion is further concentrated to 40 50% solids and turned into dehydrated extract powder; d) Partly purified extracts techniques such as solvent extraction, column chromatography, membrane extraction and separation are used to acquire more purified derivatives of green tea in order to produce supplements like green tea tablets and capsules. Tea Polyphenols The color of green tea is partly due to chlorophyll and partly due to a kind of naturally occurring compound in it, called polyphenols. These compounds are responsible for the pungency and unique flavor of green tea. They are antioxidants which is a type of phytochemical compounds found in most plants, vegetables and fruits as well as coffee, cocoa, wine and tea. Polyphenols are the most biologically active group among the tea components, with antioxidative, antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects. Exposure to oxygen during enzymatic process reduces polyphenols levels. Green tea has unaltered polyphenols because unlike oolong or black tea, they do not undergo oxidation. Because of this, green tea has the greatest effect on health among all teas. In green tea, polyphenols are in the form of flavonoids. The main flavonoids present in green tea are the green tea catechins (GTC) which comprise four major derivatives: (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (represents approximately 59% of the total of catechins); (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC) (19% approximately); (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (13.6% approximately); and (-)-epicatechin (EC) (6.4% approximately). Catachins have a carbon structure C6-C3-C6 composed of two aromatic rings. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] The catechin content of green tea depends on how the leaves are processed, the geographical location and growing conditions (e.g. soil, climate, agriculture, practices and fertilizers), the type of green tea and the infusion (e.g. brew time, temperature) Green tea polyphenols are important for their ability to halt the damaging effects of oxidation which is a process of molecular DNA damage caused by the formation of toxic molecules called free radicals that develop in the human body. Individual catechins have different antioxidative and health properties. Other compounds found in different plants also have antioxidative action. Catechins found only in green tea however have been proved to be more effective than many well-known antioxidants. Professor Catherine Rice-Evans of the Guys Hospital in London carried out tests and determined that green tea catechins have greater effects as antioxidants than the same quantity of Vitamin C and E, or beta-carotene. She also ranked the catechins according to the proportion of their presence in green tea. According to her study, EGCG was the most active of the catechins, responsible for 32% of the antioxidant property of green tea. The order from most antioxidative to least antioxidative are: 1) EGCG 2) EGC 3) ECG and 4) EC. Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant belonging to the family of chemicals called methylxanthines. It can be found in more than sixty different plants. [8] Most of them have been utilized as foods or beverages by people since ancient times. Caffeine is a trimethyl derivative of purine 2,6-diol. It was first discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820 and later isolated from tea by Nakabayashi. Caffeine content is usually 2.5-4.5% in dry green tea leaves. The amount of caffeine in green tea drink is about 1/10 to 1/5 of that in brewed coffee. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] Caffeine has a strong effect on the brain and muscles which is why drinker will experience a mental boost shortly after drinking tea. The amount of caffeine varies among different types of tea. Black tea has the greatest amount whereas green tea contains only one-third the caffeine of black tea. It has been shown in many studies that caffeine improves cognitive performance and certain aspect of memory. Besides mental health, caffeine may also helps to enhance ones emotional health, for example, making the drinker feel energized and motivated to work. Caffeine is known to be a cardiac stimulant and a diuretic. It also stimulates the cerebral cortex, causing excitation in the central nervous system. However, it may have adverse effects on some people and its intake could cause health risks instead of benefits. Because of that, this component is often removed and excluded when green tea is extracted for applications such as health supplements. Nutrients Besides polyphenols and caffeine, the two most commonly known components, green tea also actually contains many nutrients, including different kinds of vitamins and inorganic compounds. Vitamins Commercial green tea leaves contain about 280mg of Vitamin C (VC, ascorbic acid) per 100g of dried leaves. The content of Vitamin C in green tea can be ten times that in black tea because the vitamin is partly destroyed during fermentation, which green tea does not undergo. Other vitamins found in green tea in different amounts are Vitamin B2, Vitamin D, Vitamin K, and carotenoids. Inorganic elements There are many minerals in green tea such as calcium, iron, copper, sodium, zinc and potassium. Green tea can also be a rich source of selenium if it is grown in a soil rich in this essential mineral. Another important mineral found in green tea is manganese which is used by the body in digesting protein as well as maintaining healthy bones and connective tissue. Green tea also contains a lot of fluoride the mineral known for fighting dental cavities. The amounts of aluminum in green tea leaves are higher than any other plants. Fortunately, the tea plant is able to biochemically neutralize the toxicity of aluminum, which exists mainly in a chelate form, which is less absorbable than the ionic form, with less potential to cause adverse effect on health. Experiments on animals and people also confirm that tea catechins can prevent the damage caused by accumulation of aluminum in the bones. Some specific inorganic compounds in the tea plant are aluminum, fluorine, and manganese. Table 2 Inorganic Elements and their contents in green tea leaves (per 100g dried leaves) ElementContent ElementContent N3.5 7.1   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Al420 3,500   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   P0.2 0.7   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   As0.20 0.42   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   K1.6 2.5   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Ba1.3 5.1   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ca0.12 0.57   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Br7.8 25.0   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mg0.12 0.30   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   F17 260   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   S0.24 0.48   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Na20 33   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Fe100 200   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ni1.3 5.9   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mn500 3,000   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Pb2.2 6.3   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Cu15 20   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Rb8 44   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mo0.4 0.7   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Sc0.2   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   B20 30   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Se1.0 1.8   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   [Source: Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, 1991] Other Components Amino Acids The content of total nitrogen in green tea extracts ranges from 4.5 to 6%. Half of that are free amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. The amount of amino acids in tea leaves harvested during spring time is larger than that during other seasons. Green tea contains some common amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, tyrosine etc. as well as an amino acid that is unique to it: theanine. Green tea has four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. There is in fact a fifth taste known as unami which is contributed by the amino acid l-theanine. This constituent was only identified in 1949, by a Japanese who discovered that theanine makes up about 50% of the free amino acids present in tea. Young tea buds harvested in early spring contain a lot more theanine than tea leaves harvested later in the year because the theanine are converted into catechins as the leaves mature. Green tea experts rate the unami taste most highly and consider it to be the most important factor in determining the quality of the tea. High grade green tea is more soothing to drink than lower grade ones because the l-theanine can decaffeinates tea naturally, making it taste less bitter. Scientific studies using electroencephalography show that if 8 times more theanine is present than caffeine, the effect of caffeine will be blunted. Studies have also shown that theanine increases production of d opamine in the brain, giving the drinker the sense of alertness while feeling relaxed. Aromatic Oils Aromatic oils play a major role in determining the fragrance of green tea. The oils accumulate as the tea leaf grows and evaporate during and after harvest of the leaf. For green tea, some aromatic oils remain in the final tea product, contributing to the taste of the tea. About 500 different aromatic oils have been identified in tea leaves. Carbohydrates Total carbohydrates in green tea leaves are about 40%, one third of which is cellulosic fiber. Starch is also contained in green tea. Tea leaves harvested in the morning when there is less starch are considered to be better in quality. Lipids Green tea leaves has an average of 4% oil by weight. The seeds of tea also contain oil of around 20-40% by weight. The oil is nondrying and has a solidifying temperature of -5 to + 15?C.>/p> Health Benefits Since the 1990s, scientists in different countries, particularly Japan, have almost suggested that every system of the body can be benefited by green tea consumption. The polyphenols are known to reduce the risk of cancer before genetic mutations occur by neutralizing free radicals, prevent cardiovascular disease by preventing LDL cholesterol from changes that promote heart disease, and protect the body from various other illnesses. As more people around the world hear about these benefits, it has become increasingly popular for those who want a healthy life style to drink green tea as beverage or take green tea extracts as supplements. Antioxidant Effects Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that could damage the body and lead to many diseases if left alone. They take an electron form another molecule, turning it into another electron-deficient free radical that can take an electron from a third molecule and so on, leading to a chain reaction. The human body has a number of antioxidant molecules that help to defend it against degenerative diseases, but sometimes they may be overwhelmed by the free radicals. Antioxidants are substances that patrol the body and quench free radical reactions. [8] The antioxidant property of green tea extract is the most basic of all the health benefits of green tea. Many plant foods provide an abundant source of antioxidant nutrients. Polyphenols in green tea are among the most effective. Gramza Anna et al. examined the antioxidative activity of several biologically active components from plants to find which are safe for people and showing high antioxidant activities if added to food with lipids such as lard. Results show that the 1000ppm green tea ethanol extract inhibited the oxidation process most strongly among samples of green and black tea leaves. It was observed that the antioxidant activity was higher in tea extracts containing high levels of ECG, EC and C. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) analysed nearly 400 foods for their EGCG content and published a report in 2007. It showed that regular green tea contains the highest concentration of antioxidants, followed by decaffeinated green tea, flavored green tea and instant or bottled green tea. That USDA study also showed why green tea is the best way to ingest antioxidants. One gram of green tea steeped in 100 millimeters of water yields 127 milligrams of catechins whereas 100 grams of dark chocolate contains only 54 milligrams, blueberries 52 milligrams and black grapes just 22 milligrams. Since tea contains higher levels of antioxidants than many fruits and vegetables, green tea consumption can protect the cells in the human body from damage caused by free radicals. Flavonoids, act as antioxidants, through four possible mechanisms: 1) as reducing agents, disarming free radicals. 2) by donating hydrogen molecules to prevent the formation of free radicals. 3) by quenching singlet oxygen that would otherwise act as a free radical in the body. 4) by binding with metals that could otherwise initiate the creation of free radicals. Among the four polyphenols in green tea, EGCG has been found to be particularly effective as an antioxidant. Researchers from Rutgers University concluded that the strong antioxidant activities of green tea are mainly due to the higher content of EGCG after comparing the antioxidant effect of various polyphenols in green tea and oolong tea. [23] Studies of the effects of tea consumption in people confirm evident that green tea is the most effective scavenger of free radicals among the different types of tea. In one study, five adults each drank two cups of green tea while five others drank the same amount of black tea. Both green and black teas improve the antioxidant capability of the blood, but green tea was found to be six times more powerful. Scientists also found that fresh green tea extracts is a better scavenger of singlet oxygen than stale green tea extract. Green tea polyphenols are also effective in quenching other free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus is known to affect the structure and function of myocardium, causing increased collagen in the heart and reducing cardiac function. Babu and his team from India found that the antioxidant enzymes of diabetic rats are not sufficient and efficient enough to reduce the oxidative stress caused by hyperglycemia. In 2006, their investigation showed that green tea treatment is effective in controlling the antioxidant system in the heart and aorta by alleviating lipid peroxidation. In 2007, their studies suggested that administration of green tea extract may improve myocardial collagen changes in diabetic rats. They believe that the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects of green tea catechins may be responsible and concluded green tea may provide a therapeutic option for the treatment of cardiovascular complications in diabetes. HIV The majority of the worlds 33 million HIV cases were infected through heterosexual sex with 96% of new infections occurring in developing countries. Therefore ways to fight the spread of HIV in poor countries are extremely necessary. Previously, scientists have carried out lab tests and reported that EGCG may prevent HIV from binding to the T-cells in the immune systems protecting them from HIVs damage. Although they knew that EGCG inhibited HIV in test tubes, they did not know if the findings would be useful beyond the lab. [26] Just recently, researchers in Germany have found a practical way to use EGCG to help prevent the spreading of AIDS. The researchers found that EGCG was capable of neutralizing a protein in sperm that served as a vector for the transmission of the virus that causes AIDS during sex. They say that the use of green tea in vaginal creams could provide a simple and affordable way to reduce cases of HIV infection. Neuroprotective Effects Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons disease is a progressive, degenerative disorder of the central nervous system resulting from loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. A research team led by Professor Zhao affiliated to the Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Biophysics using an animal model of Parkinsons disease discovered that green tea polyphenols can protect dopamine neurons. He hopes that green tea polyphenols may eventually be developed into a safe drug for Parkinsons disease in humans. Alzheimers Disease In an article published by the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from University of South Florida reported that EGCG prevented Alzheimers-like damage in the brain of mice genetically programmed to develop the neurodegenerative disease process. They work by decreasing production of the Alzheimers-related protein called beta-amyloid which causes nerve damage and memory loss when accumulated abnormally in the brain. The researchers think that a new generation of dietary supplements containing pure EGCG might be beneficial for treating Altheimers disease. Huntingtons Disease Like Alzheimers and Parkinsons, Huntingtons disease is also a type of neurodegenerative disease caused by protein misfolding characterized by jerky and uncontrolled movements. Mutant proteins are accumulated in the brain of sufferers and become toxic to the nerve cells in the brain. A res Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Health Benefits and Problems of Drinking Green Tea Introduction Green tea was originated from China and has been consumed for thousands of years. It was initially used as a natural remedy and in religious ceremonies before it became a beverage. Heavy green tea drinkers like the monks and Japanese have been known to live longer than average people. It is believe that regular consumption of tea is good because it helps to relax ones mind, decrease his need for sleep, and lightens his weight by reducing fat in the body system. These observations have been gradually proven by scientists. Today, several billion cups of green tea are consumed daily by people around the world. It has become one of the most widely consumed drinks and popular even among younger generations who are health conscious. Although the majority of drinkers are Asians, it is gaining popularity in the West as more people hear how beneficial it can be to human health. Many people who used to drink coffee or black tea with milk are now joining the trend of drinking green tea. Those w ho do not enjoy drinking green tea but want its health benefits can take green tea extracts in the form of supplements. Aims for the dissertation A lot of studies and research have been done on green tea extracts and their effects on health the past few decades. While most scientists confirmed the goodness of green tea, some experts expressed concerns about the potential health risks of consuming too much green tea extracts. The objective of this paper is to look at the benefits and drawbacks of consuming green tea. It also attempts to find out whether green tea is really so good and as safe as so many people claim or think it to be. Methodology There are now many books about green tea, websites designed to inform and update visitors on green tea, as well as thousands of scientific articles, research studies and media reports on the health benefits and potential risks. This paper was based on information and data from secondary source, mainly literature review of books, journal articles searched from the Internet database and newspaper reports. Updates from government and official websites were also used. Overall structure This dissertation looks at the history of green tea, its composition, applications and uses. It then discusses the health benefits and potential risks of the green tea extracts, as well as the controversy about some of the health claims. Background There are different varieties of the tea plants and as many as 500 existing species of tea grown in around 50 different countries, with China having the most species than the others. Most tea specialists prefer to cultivate the species Camellia sinensis which almost all green tea comes from. Green teas are made exclusively from the young leaves and buds of the Camellia sinensis plant. This plant is a slow-growing evergreen perennial tree of the genus Camellia, which survives in tropical or sub-tropical rainforest climates and thrives at altitudes of 2,100 meters above sea-level. The two parent strains were originated in Darjeeling, Assam and China. In order to harvest them more easily and conveniently, the trees are kept short as shrubs. There is no uniform grading for green tea. Good quality green tea consists of a leaf and a bud. The eight criteria to determine good green tea are the appearance, shape, colour, completeness, aroma, liquor, flavour and wet leaf. Green tea processing Teas are classified into three major types, depending on how they are processed: green, black and oolong. Green teas are made from unfermented leaves. They are steamed, roasted, or pan-fried almost immediately after being picked. Since there is no time for them to ferment, no chemical change occurred. This is why it tends to be lighter in color and have the delicate green character. Oolong teas are produced when the fresh leaves are subjected to a partial fermentation stage before drying. Black teas undergo post-harvest fermentation stage before drying and steaming. As a result of the fermentation and oxidation, many of the components in the tea leaves that are beneficial for health are destroyed during the production of black tea. Green tea is considered better than black tea or oolong tea for health reasons because it does not go through fermentation or oxidation during its production. It is the purest form of all teas. In China, green tea leaves are allowed to dry naturally before they are roasted or pan-fried. Such treatments prevent fermentation and soften the leaves which will then be rolled and twisted to remove additional moisture. The Japanese use a steaming method before rolling, twisting and drying the leaves. Chinas green tea is known to be the most delicate of all with a sweet and mild grassy taste. Some of the best Chinese green tea like fine Dragonwell could result in five or more infusions. The best green teas are those picked during early spring around the time of the Qing Ming Festival. Modern tea masters could list 500 or more green teas which could be plucked and processed slightly differently to give slightly different taste. History of green tea Green tea has been used by people as a healthy and medicinal drink for thousands of years. There are many different stories about how it was first discovered. The most popular one from China dated as far back as 2737 B.C. The Chinese legend described how Shen Nong accidentally discovered the soothing taste of the beverage after a leaf dropped from a tea plant into a pot of boiling water while he was in the garden. He became very interested in the infusion and began to study about its various healing properties. Other stories of tea link it with Zen Buddhism. Whichever is true, there is no doubt that tea was originated from China. Anthropologists have reasons to believe that prehistoric humans living in the area of Yunnan chewed on the leaves of tea trees to increase their alertness when hunting. Fresh green tea leaves were gradually used by people for medicinal properties such as to treat depression, digestive and nervous conditions. During the Han dynasty, tea plants were known to b e grown by monasteries in Sichuan. Some people started to steam tea leaves and then compressed them into cakes. These tea bricks would be baked and hardened so that they could be prevented from spoiling and be kept for a longer time. By the Tang Dynasty, as tea cultivation improved and trade increased, tea drinking became very popular in the upper class. Tea rules and ceremony were developed during this golden age of tea. Gradually, tea was consumed as a common healthy drink for all levels of society in China and Tibet instead of mainly used as a remedy to treat different health complaints for certain groups of people. Around A.D. 780, a book dedicated to tea called Cha Ching (Tea Classics) written by Lu Yu was published. He described in great details how tea was grown, cultivated and processed. He even wrote about the utensils and proper way of tea consumption. It was Lu Yu who transformed the process of tea drinking into a form of art, which would eventually be passed to Japan by monks who travelled around Asia. As the popularity of drinking tea continued to grow in China, a tea culture began to develop in Zen ceremonies and secular society in Japan, where the tea plant was able to adapt very well. The tradition of drinking green tea involves a wide range of green tea and is still an important part of their society. By the 12th century, tea plants were already exported to Japan on a large scale. It was until the 14th century when the culture of drinking tea was first introduced to Europe via the Silk Road and soon spread to other parts of the world. During the 1600s a Chinese ambassador brought tea to Moscow which led to a flourishing tea trade to Russia. The Manchus were in power when China was the most important trading country in the world and tea trade was a monopoly. The Portuguese were the first traders to bring tea to Europe in large scale. China was able to be a sole exporter of tea by keeping the knowledge of tea cultivation technique for a long time. It was the British, eager to learn how to cultivate tea, who uncovered the secret of growing tea outside China in the 1800s. They sent a man to China who disguised himself as a merchant. The seeds he collected in China were brought to India but efforts to cultivate them failed. However, experiments using the Chinese techniques to grow loca l India tea plant were successful. Since the 19th century, the British began to cultivate tea on plantations in the colonies of India and Sri Lanka. It was only then when black tea, mass-produced and sold in packets, became more popular in the rest of the world. Nowadays, the tea plant is cultivated in many countries around the world, with China, Japan, India and Sri Lanka being the greatest producers. About 3.1 million tons of dried tea is produced every year, 20% of which is green tea. Although green tea has been consumed by the Chinese and Japanese for such a long time, its popularity increased only gradually in the West as the health benefits became more widely known. This is because green tea research has been widely conducted only in recent years by scientists. In fact, well-publicized results of research on green tea have been available only since the early 1990s. Green tea is now one of the most popular beverage consumed by people besides water. In some places, brewed tea steeped from carefully harvested green tea leaves of delicately grown tea tree is treated like prized wine or rare coffee. As studies continue to show evidence of its benefits, green tea will continue to be sought after by more and more people everywhere. The use of green tea and its extracts by manufacturers will continue to increase as green teas reputation keeps growing. Green tea components While the history of green tea is long and interesting, its chemistry is complex and studied by scientists only quite recently. To understand more about green tea extracts and their effects on health, it is necessary to look at the composition as well as chemical and biochemical properties of green tea. The composition of green tea leaf is very similar to that of other fresh leaf since green tea, being the most natural form of tea, is made from unfermented leaves from the tea plant. Only a few changes to the enzymes of the leaves occur right after they are plucked from the plant and some new volatile substances are produced when they are dried. The buds and leaves of the tea plant contain carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, enzymes and the genetic material necessary for growth and photosynthesis. The main constituents of the leaves are polyphenols, the catechin and catechin-derived antioxidants; caffeine; theobromine; theophylline; and theanine. Other compounds in green tea that affect the human health are fluoride, minerals, vitamins such as B1, B2 and C, and trace elements such as chromium and manganese. Table 1 Mean Composition (%) of Green Tea Compound Green tea* Phenolic compounds** 30 Fibre 26 Proteins 15 Others carbohydrates 7 Lipids 7 Minerals 5 Amino acids 4 Pigments 2 Oxidised phenolic compounds*** 0 *Data referred to dry weight of tea leaves. **Especially flavonoids. ***Especially thearubigins and theaflavins. [Sources: Belitz DH, Grosch W(1997), Qu?mica de los Alimentos. Zaragoza: Acribia] The amount of these ingredients differs according to where the green tea is cultivated and age of the leaves. Young leaves and buds contain more caffeine while older leaves have larger amount of tannin (flavonols).[2] Fresh green tea buds and leaves contain 75-80% water while the polyphenol components make up the remaining 20-25% of solid matter. Careful drying could prevent changes to the active ingredients of the green tea leaves whereas fermentation and oxidation that occur when black tea is processed would cause chemical changes. This leads to the major difference in the effects and taste between black tea and green tea. Green tea extracts are herbal derivatives from green tea leaves which are used or taken orally by people. The extracts can be divided into 4 categories: a) Strong infusions Green tea leaves are processed by soaking in alcohol solution; b) Soft extracts the solution made by strong infusion is concentrated to 20 25%; c) Dry extracts the solution from strong infusion is further concentrated to 40 50% solids and turned into dehydrated extract powder; d) Partly purified extracts techniques such as solvent extraction, column chromatography, membrane extraction and separation are used to acquire more purified derivatives of green tea in order to produce supplements like green tea tablets and capsules. Tea Polyphenols The color of green tea is partly due to chlorophyll and partly due to a kind of naturally occurring compound in it, called polyphenols. These compounds are responsible for the pungency and unique flavor of green tea. They are antioxidants which is a type of phytochemical compounds found in most plants, vegetables and fruits as well as coffee, cocoa, wine and tea. Polyphenols are the most biologically active group among the tea components, with antioxidative, antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic effects. Exposure to oxygen during enzymatic process reduces polyphenols levels. Green tea has unaltered polyphenols because unlike oolong or black tea, they do not undergo oxidation. Because of this, green tea has the greatest effect on health among all teas. In green tea, polyphenols are in the form of flavonoids. The main flavonoids present in green tea are the green tea catechins (GTC) which comprise four major derivatives: (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) (represents approximately 59% of the total of catechins); (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC) (19% approximately); (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate (ECG) (13.6% approximately); and (-)-epicatechin (EC) (6.4% approximately). Catachins have a carbon structure C6-C3-C6 composed of two aromatic rings. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] The catechin content of green tea depends on how the leaves are processed, the geographical location and growing conditions (e.g. soil, climate, agriculture, practices and fertilizers), the type of green tea and the infusion (e.g. brew time, temperature) Green tea polyphenols are important for their ability to halt the damaging effects of oxidation which is a process of molecular DNA damage caused by the formation of toxic molecules called free radicals that develop in the human body. Individual catechins have different antioxidative and health properties. Other compounds found in different plants also have antioxidative action. Catechins found only in green tea however have been proved to be more effective than many well-known antioxidants. Professor Catherine Rice-Evans of the Guys Hospital in London carried out tests and determined that green tea catechins have greater effects as antioxidants than the same quantity of Vitamin C and E, or beta-carotene. She also ranked the catechins according to the proportion of their presence in green tea. According to her study, EGCG was the most active of the catechins, responsible for 32% of the antioxidant property of green tea. The order from most antioxidative to least antioxidative are: 1) EGCG 2) EGC 3) ECG and 4) EC. Caffeine Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant belonging to the family of chemicals called methylxanthines. It can be found in more than sixty different plants. [8] Most of them have been utilized as foods or beverages by people since ancient times. Caffeine is a trimethyl derivative of purine 2,6-diol. It was first discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820 and later isolated from tea by Nakabayashi. Caffeine content is usually 2.5-4.5% in dry green tea leaves. The amount of caffeine in green tea drink is about 1/10 to 1/5 of that in brewed coffee. [Source: V. Jane, et al. (Jan 2003), Tea Catechins and Polyphenols: Health Effects, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Functions, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 43(1):89-143] Caffeine has a strong effect on the brain and muscles which is why drinker will experience a mental boost shortly after drinking tea. The amount of caffeine varies among different types of tea. Black tea has the greatest amount whereas green tea contains only one-third the caffeine of black tea. It has been shown in many studies that caffeine improves cognitive performance and certain aspect of memory. Besides mental health, caffeine may also helps to enhance ones emotional health, for example, making the drinker feel energized and motivated to work. Caffeine is known to be a cardiac stimulant and a diuretic. It also stimulates the cerebral cortex, causing excitation in the central nervous system. However, it may have adverse effects on some people and its intake could cause health risks instead of benefits. Because of that, this component is often removed and excluded when green tea is extracted for applications such as health supplements. Nutrients Besides polyphenols and caffeine, the two most commonly known components, green tea also actually contains many nutrients, including different kinds of vitamins and inorganic compounds. Vitamins Commercial green tea leaves contain about 280mg of Vitamin C (VC, ascorbic acid) per 100g of dried leaves. The content of Vitamin C in green tea can be ten times that in black tea because the vitamin is partly destroyed during fermentation, which green tea does not undergo. Other vitamins found in green tea in different amounts are Vitamin B2, Vitamin D, Vitamin K, and carotenoids. Inorganic elements There are many minerals in green tea such as calcium, iron, copper, sodium, zinc and potassium. Green tea can also be a rich source of selenium if it is grown in a soil rich in this essential mineral. Another important mineral found in green tea is manganese which is used by the body in digesting protein as well as maintaining healthy bones and connective tissue. Green tea also contains a lot of fluoride the mineral known for fighting dental cavities. The amounts of aluminum in green tea leaves are higher than any other plants. Fortunately, the tea plant is able to biochemically neutralize the toxicity of aluminum, which exists mainly in a chelate form, which is less absorbable than the ionic form, with less potential to cause adverse effect on health. Experiments on animals and people also confirm that tea catechins can prevent the damage caused by accumulation of aluminum in the bones. Some specific inorganic compounds in the tea plant are aluminum, fluorine, and manganese. Table 2 Inorganic Elements and their contents in green tea leaves (per 100g dried leaves) ElementContent ElementContent N3.5 7.1   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Al420 3,500   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   P0.2 0.7   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   As0.20 0.42   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   K1.6 2.5   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Ba1.3 5.1   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ca0.12 0.57   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Br7.8 25.0   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mg0.12 0.30   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   F17 260   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   S0.24 0.48   Ã‚  (g)  Ã‚   Na20 33   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Fe100 200   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Ni1.3 5.9   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mn500 3,000   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Pb2.2 6.3   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Cu15 20   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Rb8 44   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Mo0.4 0.7   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Sc0.2   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   B20 30   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   Se1.0 1.8   Ã‚  (ppm)  Ã‚   [Source: Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan, Resources Council, Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo, 1991] Other Components Amino Acids The content of total nitrogen in green tea extracts ranges from 4.5 to 6%. Half of that are free amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. The amount of amino acids in tea leaves harvested during spring time is larger than that during other seasons. Green tea contains some common amino acids like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, tyrosine etc. as well as an amino acid that is unique to it: theanine. Green tea has four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty and bitter. There is in fact a fifth taste known as unami which is contributed by the amino acid l-theanine. This constituent was only identified in 1949, by a Japanese who discovered that theanine makes up about 50% of the free amino acids present in tea. Young tea buds harvested in early spring contain a lot more theanine than tea leaves harvested later in the year because the theanine are converted into catechins as the leaves mature. Green tea experts rate the unami taste most highly and consider it to be the most important factor in determining the quality of the tea. High grade green tea is more soothing to drink than lower grade ones because the l-theanine can decaffeinates tea naturally, making it taste less bitter. Scientific studies using electroencephalography show that if 8 times more theanine is present than caffeine, the effect of caffeine will be blunted. Studies have also shown that theanine increases production of d opamine in the brain, giving the drinker the sense of alertness while feeling relaxed. Aromatic Oils Aromatic oils play a major role in determining the fragrance of green tea. The oils accumulate as the tea leaf grows and evaporate during and after harvest of the leaf. For green tea, some aromatic oils remain in the final tea product, contributing to the taste of the tea. About 500 different aromatic oils have been identified in tea leaves. Carbohydrates Total carbohydrates in green tea leaves are about 40%, one third of which is cellulosic fiber. Starch is also contained in green tea. Tea leaves harvested in the morning when there is less starch are considered to be better in quality. Lipids Green tea leaves has an average of 4% oil by weight. The seeds of tea also contain oil of around 20-40% by weight. The oil is nondrying and has a solidifying temperature of -5 to + 15?C.>/p> Health Benefits Since the 1990s, scientists in different countries, particularly Japan, have almost suggested that every system of the body can be benefited by green tea consumption. The polyphenols are known to reduce the risk of cancer before genetic mutations occur by neutralizing free radicals, prevent cardiovascular disease by preventing LDL cholesterol from changes that promote heart disease, and protect the body from various other illnesses. As more people around the world hear about these benefits, it has become increasingly popular for those who want a healthy life style to drink green tea as beverage or take green tea extracts as supplements. Antioxidant Effects Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that could damage the body and lead to many diseases if left alone. They take an electron form another molecule, turning it into another electron-deficient free radical that can take an electron from a third molecule and so on, leading to a chain reaction. The human body has a number of antioxidant molecules that help to defend it against degenerative diseases, but sometimes they may be overwhelmed by the free radicals. Antioxidants are substances that patrol the body and quench free radical reactions. [8] The antioxidant property of green tea extract is the most basic of all the health benefits of green tea. Many plant foods provide an abundant source of antioxidant nutrients. Polyphenols in green tea are among the most effective. Gramza Anna et al. examined the antioxidative activity of several biologically active components from plants to find which are safe for people and showing high antioxidant activities if added to food with lipids such as lard. Results show that the 1000ppm green tea ethanol extract inhibited the oxidation process most strongly among samples of green and black tea leaves. It was observed that the antioxidant activity was higher in tea extracts containing high levels of ECG, EC and C. The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) analysed nearly 400 foods for their EGCG content and published a report in 2007. It showed that regular green tea contains the highest concentration of antioxidants, followed by decaffeinated green tea, flavored green tea and instant or bottled green tea. That USDA study also showed why green tea is the best way to ingest antioxidants. One gram of green tea steeped in 100 millimeters of water yields 127 milligrams of catechins whereas 100 grams of dark chocolate contains only 54 milligrams, blueberries 52 milligrams and black grapes just 22 milligrams. Since tea contains higher levels of antioxidants than many fruits and vegetables, green tea consumption can protect the cells in the human body from damage caused by free radicals. Flavonoids, act as antioxidants, through four possible mechanisms: 1) as reducing agents, disarming free radicals. 2) by donating hydrogen molecules to prevent the formation of free radicals. 3) by quenching singlet oxygen that would otherwise act as a free radical in the body. 4) by binding with metals that could otherwise initiate the creation of free radicals. Among the four polyphenols in green tea, EGCG has been found to be particularly effective as an antioxidant. Researchers from Rutgers University concluded that the strong antioxidant activities of green tea are mainly due to the higher content of EGCG after comparing the antioxidant effect of various polyphenols in green tea and oolong tea. [23] Studies of the effects of tea consumption in people confirm evident that green tea is the most effective scavenger of free radicals among the different types of tea. In one study, five adults each drank two cups of green tea while five others drank the same amount of black tea. Both green and black teas improve the antioxidant capability of the blood, but green tea was found to be six times more powerful. Scientists also found that fresh green tea extracts is a better scavenger of singlet oxygen than stale green tea extract. Green tea polyphenols are also effective in quenching other free radicals such as hydrogen peroxide and superoxide. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus is known to affect the structure and function of myocardium, causing increased collagen in the heart and reducing cardiac function. Babu and his team from India found that the antioxidant enzymes of diabetic rats are not sufficient and efficient enough to reduce the oxidative stress caused by hyperglycemia. In 2006, their investigation showed that green tea treatment is effective in controlling the antioxidant system in the heart and aorta by alleviating lipid peroxidation. In 2007, their studies suggested that administration of green tea extract may improve myocardial collagen changes in diabetic rats. They believe that the antioxidant, antihyperglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects of green tea catechins may be responsible and concluded green tea may provide a therapeutic option for the treatment of cardiovascular complications in diabetes. HIV The majority of the worlds 33 million HIV cases were infected through heterosexual sex with 96% of new infections occurring in developing countries. Therefore ways to fight the spread of HIV in poor countries are extremely necessary. Previously, scientists have carried out lab tests and reported that EGCG may prevent HIV from binding to the T-cells in the immune systems protecting them from HIVs damage. Although they knew that EGCG inhibited HIV in test tubes, they did not know if the findings would be useful beyond the lab. [26] Just recently, researchers in Germany have found a practical way to use EGCG to help prevent the spreading of AIDS. The researchers found that EGCG was capable of neutralizing a protein in sperm that served as a vector for the transmission of the virus that causes AIDS during sex. They say that the use of green tea in vaginal creams could provide a simple and affordable way to reduce cases of HIV infection. Neuroprotective Effects Parkinsons Disease Parkinsons disease is a progressive, degenerative disorder of the central nervous system resulting from loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. A research team led by Professor Zhao affiliated to the Chinese Academy of Sciences Institute of Biophysics using an animal model of Parkinsons disease discovered that green tea polyphenols can protect dopamine neurons. He hopes that green tea polyphenols may eventually be developed into a safe drug for Parkinsons disease in humans. Alzheimers Disease In an article published by the Journal of Neuroscience, researchers from University of South Florida reported that EGCG prevented Alzheimers-like damage in the brain of mice genetically programmed to develop the neurodegenerative disease process. They work by decreasing production of the Alzheimers-related protein called beta-amyloid which causes nerve damage and memory loss when accumulated abnormally in the brain. The researchers think that a new generation of dietary supplements containing pure EGCG might be beneficial for treating Altheimers disease. Huntingtons Disease Like Alzheimers and Parkinsons, Huntingtons disease is also a type of neurodegenerative disease caused by protein misfolding characterized by jerky and uncontrolled movements. Mutant proteins are accumulated in the brain of sufferers and become toxic to the nerve cells in the brain. A res

The French Revolution of 1789 Essay -- French History

There is no doubt that the French Revolution has had a profound effect on the world. The cause or causes of it have been greatly disputed. Clearly the Revolution's primary cause was the presence of a weak monarchy and a lack of a stable system of government. France's absolute monarchy had many changes toward the end of the eighteenth century. King Louis XVI, in his attempts to consolidate his authority and lessen the power of the aristocrats, had planned out an intendant system. The intendants were like governors. They would oversee one constituency of the country. These intendants could not govern the region in which they lived, and were chosen from other than the aristocracy. This insured that their allegiance was pledged to the king and not to their own region. This system caused great disturbances among the aristocrats who felt that the regions should rule them, which in fact, would take away the power from the monarchy. Unfortunately for King Louis XVI, this system had been corr upted by the time he had come to power. The intendants had been replaced by nobility and they had no loyalty to the monarchy. Everybody was trying to be more independent from the monarchy. The Parliaments, who before King Louis XVI had the right to bar the king's legislation, all changed when Louis XVI had made it illegal to veto. This had diminished any kind of check or balance system that had existed in France. This decision by Louis XVI made the Parliaments rebel against the King. Louis XVI, who had not been a very strong king to begin with, sat idle while the Parliaments reduced his power. France, who had been in great debt, could not raise taxes because the Parliaments would not pass it. Nothing was accomplished because the government could not ag... ...and the presence of a weak monarchy in Louis' XVI indecisive and half-hearted attempt at running the country, had caused the downfall of the French monarchy and an overhaul of the country itself. Works Cited 1. Hooker, Richard. (1999): n. pag. Web. 7 Jan 2011. . 2. Kreis, Steven. "The Origins of the French Revolution." (2006): n. pag. Web. 6 Jan 2011. . 3. "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity." Exploring the French Revolution n. pag. Web. 6 Jan 2011. . 4. "The Social Causes of the French Revolution." n. pag. Web. 6 Jan 2011. . 5. n. pag. Web. 6 Jan 2011. .

A culture of my own :: essays research papers

A Culture of My Own   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The smell of the ocean, palm trees, and the sound of the salsa beats in the distance, characteristics of a beautiful culture. But is that really what My culture is. As a Cuban in America, culture is much different than that of a island native. My culture, or should I say, the culture that my family has molded into our own, is a spectacular one. It may not be the same as it was one-hundred years ago, or even twenty years ago for that matter. But one things makes that okay, culture is not written, nor are you born with in. We humans are taught culture. And what I’ve learned and discovered on my own is that being Cuban means many things to me; it means music and loudness, A lot of family memories, and most definitely pride.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To begin with, the Cuban culture is one of much loudness and joyous music. Growing up, there was never a day that I did not wake up to the sound of loud salsa music blaring. Or to the loud voices of my mother or grandmother talking. To anyone else this â€Å"talking† would surely be mistaken for an argument or fight. Cuba is where salsa music and the conga drum originated so we tend to be very prideful of this. One of the greatest salsa singer/writer was the late Celia Cruz. She was somewhat of a hero to Cuban people; seeing as though she had been a Cuban refugee, and became a great success in the U.S. Her recent passing was a devastation, not only to the Cuban society but to all Latinos and many Americans as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Which brings me to family. My Mother and Aunts had grown up listening to and admiring Celia Cruz so you can only imagine their reaction to her death. Our entire family was in mourning. Sound kind of silly, but it was as if one of our on had passed. Like many Latin families, mine is huge! And what does a huge family mean; a lot of parties, weddings, and holidays. Holidays with a Cuban family is a one of a kind experience. There is drinking, music, fun, and of course fights. It is certainly somewhat of a comforting chaos. This past Christmas, I spent alone with my Mother and Step- Father, and it was just not the same.

Cambodia And United Nations :: essays research papers

Cambodia is a small country located in Southeast Asia bordering the Gulf of Thailand. Cambodia lies between Thailand and Vietnam. It occupies a total area of 181,040 square kilometers, and out of all of this, only 176,520 square kilometers are on land. Cambodia has a 2,572-kilometer long land boundary and 443 kilometer coastline.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cambodia has a tropical climate like most countries in Southeast Asia. In this tropical climate, there is a rainy, monsoon season from May to October. The dry season lasts from December to March. The land terrain in Cambodia is mostly made up of low lands, flat plains, with mountains in the Southwest and north. There is a wide amount of natural resources in Cambodia. The natural resources include, timber, gemstones, manganese, phosphates, and hydropower potential.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main kind of agriculture in Cambodia is subsistence farming. This is where the food you grow on your farm is for your own good. The opposite of subsistence farming is commercial farming where big industries farm for commercial profit. The Mekong river floods the fields in the wet season, making the land perfect for growing rice, which is their main cash crop. Even though they grow a lot of rice, their main export is rubber, and their man import is machinery.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cambodia has a small population compared to the many states of the United States of America. As of July 1993, Cambodia had a total population of 9,898,900. The nationality, or the names of the people who live in Cambodia are Cambodian(s). The primary ethnic group that makes up 90% of the total population is Khmer. The major religion in Cambodia is Theravada Buddhism. About 95% of the people in Cambodia follow this religion. The official language is Khmer, and French is the second most common language.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The French colonized Cambodia for 83 years. Cambodia became independent in November 1953. This was because Norodom Sihanuk led a peaceful independence movement against the French. Norodom Sihanuk was the current Prince of Cambodia at that time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Soon after this, a communist group called the Khmer Rouge, which was lead by Pol Pot and backed up by the Chinese stepped in. They were in charge of Cambodia for eight years. Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge murder millions of innocent Cambodians. Their rule ended when the Vietnamese took control.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Royal Government of Cambodia administers the government in Cambodia. There are currently two Prime Ministers, who are Hun Sen, and Ran Narit.

Asian Social Science

It has been noted that many drug addicts relapse to drug use after discharged from successful treatment and rehabilitation programs. Thus it is imperative and timely to address the issues that prompt relapsed addiction. 400 drug addicts on relapse cases were selected from eight drug rehabilitation centres throughout Peninsular Malaysia to examine factors influences the relapsed addiction to drug use. Consistent with previous research, self-efficacy, family support, community support and employers support were identified as main factors that influenced the relapsed addictions tendency amongst addicts.Suggestions to curb relapsed addiction to drugs were discussed in relation to the findings. Keywords: Relapse, Addiction, Drug, Malaysia 1. Introduction The close geographical propinquity to Myanmar, Laos and Thailand (Golden Triangle) and other Southeast Asian countries that produces illicit drugs has intensify drug use in Malaysia. The illicit drug use been well thought-out as major soc ial intimidation in Malaysia.The government, on February 19, 1983, declared drug as national disaster and endeavor with stringent law enforcement together with rehabilitation programs for addicts. Indeed the government through various agencies has put in action strategies to impede drug use, parallel to the mission of attaining a drug-free society by 2015. Nevertheless, even with the country’s stringent enforcement policy, there has been a sizeable ascends in the number of fresh and relapsed drug users (National Anti-Drug Agency (NADA), 2009).NADA entrusted by the Malaysian government to sculpt mechanisms to handle the drug crisis and in particular to trim down relapsed addiction rate. Based on the statistics by NADA (2009), the number of detained drug addicts from January to December 2007 and 2008 were 14,489 and 12,352 respectively. Perhaps, the addiction trend that was recorded by NADA is some sort of a relief to all concern. In 2007, the detained fresh and relapsed addict s were 6,679 and 7,810 respectively.Among the detained drug addicts in 2008, 5,939 (48%) were fresh addicts while 6,413 (52%) were relapsed addicts. Interestingly, in 2008 the statistics revealed a decline of percentages in total number of detained addicts (15%), new addicts (11%) and relapsed addicts (18%) compared to the reported statistics in 2007. Nevertheless, careful observation on the statistics revealed an increase in the number of detained relapsed addicts compared to new drug addicts between 2008 and 2007.Generally, it is well understood that the number of drug addicts should reduce dramatically upon successful completion of treatments or rehabilitation program. However, the reported data explicates that most of the drug addicts failed to sustain the free of drug lifestyle after they have been discharged from rehabilitation treatment program. Mohamad Hussain and Mustafa (2001) reported that there are evidence of 90% relapsed cases among heroin addicts within six months aft er been discharged from the Serenti rehabilitation centres.It also had been found that 40% of the addicts pine for heroin after a month of abstinence. Surprisingly, Serenti rehabilitation centers have relapsed inmates who have followed the rehabilitation sessions for more than five times. Moreover, Habil, (2001) contended that more than 70 percent of those attending drug rehabilitation centres would probably relapse. Reid, Kamarulzaman, and Sran (2007) alleged that though some of the programs had been successful, about 70 to 90 per cent of addicts who underwent rehabilitation probably 37 Vol. 5, No. 12Asian Social Science return to the habit within first year after been discharged if they are compelled and detained at the rehabilitation centres. In any event, the rate of relapse among addicts is of great concern to both governmental and non-governmental bodies. Thus, this research was initiated to examine the factors contributing to relapsed addiction tendency amongst drug addicts i n Malaysia. Indeed this study is significant and timely to fight against drug addictions to the root while achieving the nation’s ambition to reach the zero drugs by 2015. . Factors Contributing to Relapse among Drug Addicts Relapse is a formidable challenge in the treatment of all behavior disorders (Witkiewitz & Marlatt, 2004). Several authors have described relapse as complex, dynamic and unpredictable (Buhringer, 2000; Donovan, 1996; Marlatt, 1996). Whereas according to Mahmood (1996), relapsed addiction means, usage, intake or misuse of psychoactive substances after one had received drug addiction treatment and rehabilitation, physically and psychologically.To Rasmussen (2000), relapse occurred because of the building up of additional crisis such as to look trivially on certain problem, stress, weak or failed forecast, the pessimistic thinking that all issue cannot be resolved and immature actions. Relapsed addicts also confused and overreact due to the inability to thin k clearly, unable to manage feelings and emotions, the difficulty to remember things, unable to control their feelings and easily angered. Various studies have examined the effects of psychosocial factors towards relapse among drug and alcohol dependence.Moos (2007) contended that psychological factors are supposition to contribute to relapse among drug addicts after abstinence. Consistently, anxiety has been linked to increased relapse risk among marijuana addicts (Arendt et al. , 2007; White et al. , 2004). Other relapse promoting factor is self-efficacy, defined as a degree to which an individual feels confident and capable performing a certain behavior in a specific situational context (Bandura, 1977).As described in the cognitive-behavioral model of relapse (Marlatt, Bear & Quigley, 1995), high levels of self-efficacy are predictive of improved alcoholism treatment outcomes (Brown et al. , 1995; Greenfield et. al. , 2000; Rychtarik, Prue, Rapp & King, 1992). The situation is di fferent from the results of research done on 60 alcoholics, which found that individuals who have high self-efficacy after going through rehabilitation treatment, are most unlikely to be addicted again (Allsop, Saunders & Phillips, 2000).Chuah (1990), in his research found that drug addicts who have low self-efficacy would be back to addiction after their release from getting treatment and rehabilitation. Other previous studies have also point out that improvement in self-esteem positively lead to success in rehabilitation programs and it assist in curbing drug addictions (Graham et al. , 1997; Mahmood, 1995; Mahmood et al. ,1998; Mahmood et al. , 1999). Attitude and poor knowledge on drug abuse been reported to be contributing factor of relapsed addictions among drug addicts (Abdullah & Iran, 1997).Besides, less support from family members and the community by large towards former addicts highly promote the relapsed addiction tendency after treatment (Brown et al. , 1995; Miller et al. ,1999; Miller, 1992; Moos & King, 1997). Research by Mohd Taib, Rusli and Mohd Khairi (2000) on family communication patterns amongst addicts’ family and non addicts’ family, showed weak communication patterns and less effective interactions amongst former addicts’ family is one of the high probable factors toward drug addiction.Indeed, family support is much needed to ensure the rehabilitation process success and issues like â€Å"don’t care attitude† and ostracizing former addicts would only failed the rehabilitation process and in the long run caused the former addicts to relapse (Daley & Marlatt, 1992). Amongst other factors that have been associated with relapsed addiction are peer pressures especially from the old friends who still use drugs. Mahmood, et al. (1999) found 50% of old friends influenced former addicts to pick up the drug taking habit after they were discharged from rehabilitation centres.The research also showed that 76% of the old friends assist rehabilitated individuals to get the needed supply of drugs. These situations further induced the relapsed addiction amongst former addicts who has been getting rehabilitation treatments. However, the above research is different from findings by Chuah (1990). He found peers support could help former addicts from not getting back to the old habit. He concluded that high emotional and spiritual support will indirectly increase the addicts’ self confidence and decrease the risk towards relapsed addiction.Gregoire and Snively (2001) reported that addicts who have discharged from rehabilitation centres and living in drug-free social environments could be linked with higher abstinence rates and low in relapse of drug use. Mc Coy and Lai (1997), on the other hand, associates inability to get jobs amongst former addicts who were discharged from rehabilitation centres coupled with lack of financial supports, caused the addicts to go back to addictions. Yunos (1 995) asserted that employers always took advantage on the former addicts by paying low salaries without aking into consideration their qualifications and experience, causing dissatisfactions amongst the former addicts that eventually caused them to quit their jobs. Yahya & Mahmood, (2002), found that the treatment and rehabilitation programs being conducted in any country would faced various challenges. The effectiveness of drug rehabilitation programs also one of the factors, associated with relapsed addictions amongst addicts. This is because some researchers found drug rehabilitation programs conducted on addicts are less effective to jolt them to awake (Mokhtar, 1997, Wellish & Prondergast, 1995).Many research found that the traditional treatment and rehabilitation models failed to help in reducing relapse addiction to drug use (Habil, 2001; 38 Asian Social Science December, 2009 Mahmud Mazlan, Schottenfeld & Chawarski, 2006; Mohamad & Mustafa, 2001; Mahmood, Md Shuaib Che Din a nd Ismail Ishak, 1998; McLellan, 2002; Nestler, 2002; O'Brien, 2006 ; Reid, 2007). Though, sufficient rehabilitation programs are in place, prevention of relapse to drug will pass its best if physiology and psychology strength of addicts faint in due time.In addition, lack of multiple long term treatment modalities, social intervention and additional pharmacological treatment could abet relapse. Hence, relapse to drug use after extended periods of abstinence remains as most intricate clinical problem and research issue in the treatment of drug addiction (Miller et al. , 1999; O'Brien, 2006; Sinha & Li, 2007). Individuals involved in recovery and the treatment of recovering individuals recognize that sustaining a clean and sober life is perhaps significantly more difficult than eliminating the use of the drug.There is a high degree of consensus in the field that relapse is a common element in the recovery process. Nevertheless, examination of factors which contributes to relapse is i ndispensable to develop successful interventions in curbing future relapse to drug-taking behavior (Donovan, 1996; O'Brien, 2006, Sinha & Li, 2007). The present study intended to identify the extent that self-efficacy; support from peers, family, employers, community; and programme effectiveness at drug rehabilitation centres influences the relapsed addiction amongst drug addicts.The findings of this research is advantageous to the government, namely the Home Ministry, NADA, social workers, drug counselors, psychologist and other human services in particular, Malaysia and other regions in general. 3. Method The primary data was obtained through a survey using self-administered questionnaire. Items from established instruments were adopted and modified appropriately to suit the objectives of the study. The instrument consists of five parts. The first part of the questionnaire collected the demographic information of the respondents.Second part consist 42 items developed by Marlatt an d Gordon, (1985) to measure the tendencies of relapsed addiction among the addicts. The items specifically measures three dimensions; negative emotion, interpersonal conflict and social pressure. Part 3, 4 and 5 obtained information pertaining to self-efficacy, sosial-environment factors (support form peer, family, employer, and community) and rehabilitation programme effectiveness respectively. Self-efficacy was measured using 15 items developed by Sherer and Maddux (1982) while 5 items from Abdullah and Iran (1991) was employed to measure attitude towards drug abuse. 0 items developed by Procidano and Heller (1983) used to measure peer and family support.12 items created by the researchers to measure employer and community support. The program effectiveness at drug rehabilitation centres was measured using 26 items developed by Bahaman, et al. (2003). The respondents were asked to respond on a scale ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (4). From the analysis, it wa s identified that the Cronbach alpha of all constructs exceeds Nunnally’s (1978) recommended threshold value of 0. 7. Thus, the instrument used in this study showed a good level in terms of reliability.The respondents were chosen by systematic sampling procedure. 400 questionnaires were personally distributed to the relapsed addicts who are undergoing treatments and rehabilitations in eight Narcotics Rehabilitation Centres in Peninsular Malaysia. Counselors from the respective centres help to disseminate and collect the survey. High response rate (100%) for this study is due to high degree of cooperation by the respondents and the centres’ counselors. In addition, the drop and pick method utilized in this survey was very effective.The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 15. 4. Findings and Discussion 4. Respondents’ background Majority of the respondents (86%) involved in this research were aged 30 years and above. 80% of them were Malays and Muslims and in te rms of marital status, 65% were single. From the data on educational level, 91% of the respondents were holding Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (Malaysian Certificate of Education, equivalent to O’levels). About 47% of them used to work as temporary workers. 4. 2 Factors promoted relapsed addiction amongst drug addicts in Malaysia. Respondents perceptions on all factors contributing to relapsed addiction were categorized as low, moderate and high based on the possible score range.Table 1 shows the summary of the findings. About 97 percent of the respondents indicated moderate to high level of agreement on attitude towards drug abuse. 68 percent of the respondents agreed to moderate level of self-efficacy. In short, the findings showed that respondents received moderate to high level of support from peers (99 percent) and family (96 percent) in their endeavor towards free from drug use. On the other hand respondents reported that they received low to moderate level of support from em ployers (98 percent) and community (94 percent) on the whole.About 99 percent of the respondents indicated moderate to high level of satisfactory with the rehabilitation programme at the respective centres. Table 2 displays the Pearson’s correlation coefficients between the research variables which indicate the strength of relationship between the seven factors with respect to perceived tendency of relapsed addiction to drug use. Out of seven factors identified to promoting relapsed addiction, only four factors showed significant correlation at the 0. 05 level. The factor with the highest correlation to tendency of relapsed addiction to drug use is self-efficacy (r= . 790, p